4.1 Refrigeration process comparison
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1 Refrigeration (Kylteknik) course # v Refrigeration process comparison; process equipment Ron Zevenhoven Åbo Akademi University Thermal and Flow Engineering Laboratory / Värme- och strömningsteknik tel ; ron.zevenhoven@abo.fi ÅA Refrigeration / Kylteknik 4.1 Refrigeration process comparison Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
2 Process comparison /1 The four most important refrigeration processes are (1) vapour compression (v-c), (2) absorption, (3) gas expansion and (4) thermo-electric (T-E) processes The processes can almost all be separated in a high pressure part and a low pressure part (or high voltage and low voltage part for T-E) see ---- boundaries in the figures below The energy input occurs at the point where the pressure of the refrigerant gas is increased Pictures: S90 Vapour-compression Absorption Absorption + heat exchange Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Process comparison /2 In the compressor, work is converted into enthalpy, in an absorption process heat is converted into enthalpy Compressor (or absorber + regenerator) efficiency is very important, as is also the expansion device For a given refigeration situation (capacity, temperatures) a final choice for a given system is based on costs, related to investment and space, energy use (efficiency!!), cooling water needs, maintenance needs, reliability, ease of operation Picture: 4/40
3 Vapour-compression systems Vaporiser Temperature C Capacity 10 C W 10 kw 1 MW (Semi-)hermetic reciprocating 2-stage open reciprocal 2-stage cascade open reciprocal 1-stage open reciprocal 2-stage open screw 2-stage cascade open screw 1-stage open screw Centrifugal / Turbo compressors Typical equipment and compressor type ranges (source: S90) 5/40 Absorption systems Capacity 100 W 10 kw 1 MW Vaporiser Temperature C 10 C NH 3 / H 2 O + H 2 LiBr / H 2 O NH 3 / H 2 O 1-stage NH 3 / H 2 O 2-stage -80 Typical ranges for absorption processes (source: S90) 6/40
4 Power ranges Figure: HTW08 Table: Siemens, S?? Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering Process comparison /3 Vapour-compression and (2-stage) NH 3 /H 2 O absorption refrigerators can cool down to - 60 ~ - 80 C For lower temperatures - 80 ~ C: gas expansion devices based on reversed gas cycles (regenerative cooling) Linde-type processes (Joule-Thomson effect) Pictures: S90 Gas-expansion Gas expansion + heat exchange Linde process Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
5 Process comparison /4 Thermo-electric cooling gives relatively small capacity, low efficiency, high investment costs (special materials!), no moving parts, small space requirements: used in special applications Typical ranges -35 ~ +5 C; cooling capacity < 100 W Thermo-electric refrigerator Picture: S90 Picture: Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 ÅA Refrigeration / Kylteknik 4.2 Compressors displacement compressors, dynamic compressors See also A11: chapter 4 (+5) HTW08 chapter 4 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
6 Compressor types /1 The tasks of the compressor are to (1) pump the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator and (2) increase the pressure (and temperature) Compressors can be divided into two main categories: 1. Displacement compressors - Reciprocating - Rotary vane, wankel - Screw, Scroll 2. Dynamic compressors - Turbine - Centrifugal Picture: D03 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Compressor types /2 In general, displacement compressors are used for larger pressure increases, while dynamic compressors are used for larger flow rates In refrigeration applications: Reciprocating compressors (sv: kolvkompressor) and screw compressors (sv: skruvkompressor) are used for kw; For the range up to 10 kw also spiral or scroll compressors (sv: spiralkompressor) are used. Centrifugal compressors (sv: centrifugal kompressor) are used for large capacities (300 kw 20 MW), including turbo compressors (sv: turbokompressor) for air conditioning and water cooling applications In the range 10 kw 500 kw, screw compressors are replacing reciprocating compressors: less moving parts, more reliable, less maintenance, lower risk for refrigerant loss Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
7 Hermetic compressors Smaller compressors (up to a few kw) are usually of the hermetic type, with compressor and motor inside a sealed housing The refrigerant from the evaporator and lubricant oil contact the mechanical components Electic resistance heating reduces efficiency Used in household refrigerators, freezers and air-conditioning Typical refrigerant: R-134a, R- 600a and other hydrocarbons Air-cooled condensing unit using a hermetic compressor Picture: D03 Picture: 13/40 Semi-hermetic, open compressors Larger than a few kw, refrigeration compressors are of the semi-hermetic (up to ~ 300 kw) or open (up to a few MW) type In the semi-hermetic type the motor and compressor are two sections in the same housing but the refrigerant does not flow over the compressor rotor. No refrigerant leakage problem. In the open type motor and compressor are separated, the crankshaft extends into the compressor; special seals prevent refrigerant (and air) leakage. Typical refrigerant: all kinds, especially the open types are flexible Single-stage semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor Open type reciprocating compressor Pictures: D03 14/40
8 Reciprocating compressors /1 Typical range up to ~ 300 kw Often built for a certain (type of) refrigerant Limitation ranges for T min T max, p min p max Contact between lubrication oil and refrigerant can give foaming problems Often with several cylinders; for z cylinders with displacement volume (sv: slagvolym) V displ (m 3 ) and rotation speed n (1/s) the total displacement volume stream equals n z V disp (m 3 /s) picture: Picture: 15/40 Reciprocating compressors /2 Important for compressor efficiency is the volumetric efficiency η c,vol, which is based on the displacement volume V displ, and the specific volume of the refrigerant on entrance (suction) and discharge v in and v out : V R Vclear v in η c,vol CR Vdispl Vdispl v out for refrigerant suction volume V R and clearance volume V clear (sv: skadligt rum) (= cylinder volume minus displacement volume) After discharge, V clear is filled with (hot) gas at p = p discharge, taking up a larger volume when p = p suction less new vapour can be taken in Compression ratio V clear For motor power input P and isentropic compression (s in =s out ) the compressor efficiency η c is c isentrop m ( hout ( sin sout ) h P Picture: Ö96 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 V V clear displ in )
9 Screw compressors Screw compressors were earlier used for lower temperatures (down to C) than reciprocating compressors but are now replacing reciprocating compressors Benefits are Efficiency and reliability Costs Less moving parts Less vibration Less refrigerant loss!! Picture: D03 Large capacity double-screw compressor Hermetic screw compressor Picture: 17/40 Rotary vane, scroll compressors Small systems make use of rotary vane compressors (compression ratios up to ~7) Simple, relatively low speeds, high compression ratio, low maintenance Scroll compressors are recent developments, that have good part-load performance and operation characteristics, and high efficiency Scroll compressor: Rotary vane compressor Hermetic scroll compressor Pictures: S??, D03 18/40
10 Centrifugal compressors Centrifugal compressors are used for larger refrigeration systems, typically 300 kw 20 MW cooling Usually 2 or more stages Pressures typically up to 40 bar Evaporator temperatures as low as C possible Adiabatic efficiencies up to 80% Typical refrigerants R-123, R-134a, R-22 Special type: turbo compressor, when suction pressures and volumes are high, compression ratios and T H -T L not too high (otherwise multi-stage!) Centrifugal compressor for CO 2, NH 3 (1920s) Picture: D03 19/40 Picture: Compressor efficiency /1 (Ö96) For an open compressor the efficiency η c is the product of (1) mechanical efficiency, (2) motor-to-compressor efficiency and (3) power-to-motor efficiency.. For power input P, mass stream m: c real m ( hout h P The fraction (1-η c real ) P gives heat loss to the surroundings, but this is also part of the high-temperature heat Q H = Q L + P For a isentropic compression in ) Pictures: Ö96 c isentrop m ( hout ( sin sout ) h P in ) 20/40
11 Compressor efficiency /2 (Ö96) The total process efficiency η t is given by P = P carnot / η t This gives: Q P t L COP c real c isentropic t COP COP carnot TL t T T process with isentropic compression COP carnot H L where Picture: Ö96 The diagram gives some efficiency data from commercial vapourcompression refrigerators (T 1 = T H, T 2 = T L, data from 1976) 21/40 Volumetric efficiency, power efficiency Pictures: HTW08 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering
12 ÅA Refrigeration / Kylteknik 4.3 Condensers water-cooled, air-cooled, evaporative See also A11: chapter 10 HTW08 chapter 6 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Water-cooled condensers Most common water-cooled condensers are shell and tube type condensers with water (coolant) through the tubes and refrigerant through the shell Condensed refrigerant accumulates in the lower part of the shell: horizontal construction is important! Cooling water must be available, a water treatment plant will be needed Freeze protection may be necessary. Picture: D03 Picture: Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
13 Air-cooled condenser Air-cooled condensers are based on convective heat transfer caused by an outside air flow that is drawn past the refrigerant tube Cheap, no water handling problems Low investment and maintenance costs High condensation temperature Long tubing (requires much refrigerant!) Much fan power needed per kw cooling Noise... Large units require multiple systems Picture: D03 Picture: Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Evaporative condenser Evaporative coolers are based on water cooling, allowing for some of the cooling water to be evaporated and transported away with moving air Efficiency depends on Air humidity (wet bulb temperature) Air flow Air/water contacting Water treatment is necessary Small compared to air-cooling; some pump power needed High use and consumption of water (to avoid problems with dissolved solids) To be continued for cooling towers Evaporative cooler Cooling tower Pictures: D03 Picture: Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
14 Condenser heat transfer (Ö96) Typical values for the overall heat transfer coefficient refrigerant air or water coolant; for NH 3, R-12, R-22 : U = W/(m 2 K) with air, forced convection U = W/(m 2 K) with water, shell and plate heat exchanger U = W/(m 2 K) with evaporating water For the heat transfer coefficient α (W/m 2 K) at the side of the condensating refrigerant the following can be used for tube outside diameter D (m), inside diameter d (m), tube length L (m) and heat flux q (W/m 2 ): α = α 0 (D q) for condensation on the outside of horizontal tubes, and also vertical surfaces with height D α 0 13 kw/m 2 K for R-12, R-22; 80 for NH 3 and 180 for H 2 O α = α 0 (q) (L d) for condensation inside horizontal tubes α 0 9 kw/m 2 K for R-12, R-22; 70 for NH 3 and 150 for H 2 O Corrected See also AGG76 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 ÅA Refrigeration / Kylteknik 4.4 Evaporators See also A11: chapter 11 HTW08 chapter 7 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
15 Evaporators The evaporator gives the cooling effect based on vaporisation of the refrigerant Can be based on full evaporation (a) in Figure or with partial evaporation with siphon (b) or pump (c) driven circulation, evaporating 20-50% of the liquid Usually shell and tube heat exchangers where refigerant vaporises in the tubes ( dry ), otherwise the refrigerant can vaporise on the outside of the tubes (flooded ) More modern: bonded plate evaparators see Figure Contact with air will require defrosting arrangements Note fins Pictures: Ö96 A11 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Flooded evaporator (large NH 3 systems) A flooded evaporator Picture: A11 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering
16 Evaporator heat transfer (Ö96) Typical values for the overall heat transfer coefficient refrigerant air or water coolant ; for NH 3, R-12, R-22 U = 3-8 W/(m 2 K) with air, natural convection U = W/(m 2 K) with air, forced convection U = W/(m 2 K) with water, shell and plate heat exchanger For the heat transfer coefficient α (W/m 2 K) at the side of the evaporating refrigerant the following can be used for tube outside diameter D (m), inside diameter d (m), tube length L (m) and heat flux q (W/m 2 ): α = α 0 (q) 0.5 for evaporation on outside of horizontal tubes / plates α 0 15 W/m 2 K for R-12, R-22; 30 for NH 3 and 30 for H 2 O α = α 0 (q) 0.8 (L) 0.4 (d) -1.0 for evaporation inside horizontal tubes α W/m 2 K for R-12, R-22; 0.02 for NH 3 ; 0.02 for H 2 O See also AGG76 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Baudelot evaporator for liquid (water) cooling Picture: HTW08 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering
17 ÅA Refrigeration / Kylteknik 4.5 Throttling devices, additional devices, control See also A11: chapter 9 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Throttling devices /1 A controlable isenthalpic pressure reduction of a saturated liquid is accomplished by Thermostatic expansion valves TEVs (controlled by the temperature of superheated vapour from the evaporator) Constant pressure expansion valves (keeping pressure constant at the outlet) Float valves (controlling the liquid flow to the evaporator, on the high pressure ( highside float ) or low pressure ( low-side float ) side of the throttling device) Capillary tubes, (used in small < 30 kw hermetic compressor-based systems) reduce pressure in a narrow (0.4-3 mm), long (1.5-5 m) copper tube) Picture Picture: Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
18 Throttling devices /2 Automatic expansion valve Thermostatic expansion valve (TEV) Pictures: A11 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering Additional necessary devices Tubing Insulation material Fans Defrosting / purging Accumulator (avoiding liquid into compressor) Receiver (preventing condenser overflow) Oil separators (remove oil from refrigerant): HTW08 Ch 5 Strainers (removes dirt from refrigerant) Driers (remove moisture from refrigerant) Control system Power or heat A v-c refrigerator with control devices Air cooler evaporators (a) room type (b) industrial Pictures: D03 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
19 ÅA Refrigeration / Kylteknik 4.6 An example: non-condensable gas in R407c v-c system Source: HTW08 example 11.2 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40 Source: HTW08 example 11.2 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering
20 Source: HTW08 example 11.2 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering Sources #4 AGG76: J. Andersson, L.-O. Glass, E. Granryd, Kykteknik för processtekniker Ingenjörsförlaget AB, Stockholm (1976) A11: R. C. Arora Refrigeration and air conditioning, 2nd. Ed. PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi (2011) Chapters 4-5, 9-12 D03: İ. Dinçer Refrigeration systems and applications Wiley (2003) HTW08: G.F. Hundy, A.R. Trott, T.C. Welsh Refrigeration and air conditioning 4 th ed. Butterworth-Heinemann (2008) Chapters 3-11 S90: A.L. Stolk Koudetechniek A1, Delft University of Technology (1990) S??: Refrigeration technology, Siemens Building technologies (year?) sections TW00: A.R. Trott, T.C. Welsh Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning 3rd Ed. Butterworths- Heineman (2000) Ö96: G. Öhman Kylteknik, Åbo Akademi University (1996) See also: Martinez, I. Lectures on Thermodynamics lecture 18 (English or Spanish) updated and based on Termodinámica básica y aplicada", Ed. Dossat, Madrid (1992) ISBN An interesting photo gallery: Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering /40
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