2001 Southeastern Pennsylvania Stormwater Management Symposium Villanova University. Jean K. Akers
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1 2001 Southeastern Pennsylvania Stormwater Management Symposium Villanova University Abstract Planting For Water Quality Incorporating plantings into stormwater BMP design to improve water quality. Jean K. Akers This presentation reviews the values and applications of vegetation for stormwater treatment. Specific plants and planting techniques can control soil erosion, slow runoff velocity, absorb dissolved nutrients and pollutants and facilitate infiltration. With stricter water quality requirements, design professionals will need to combine the specific expertise of horticulture and landscape architecture with stormwater management. Applying specific horticultural knowledge, this presentation takes a closer look at the planting types, methods and applications for treating stormwater runoff in developed lands. Introduction With stricter requirements being imposed for the handling of stormwater runoff and the overall need to address water quality and improved management of our water resources, the values of vegetation are becoming more apparent in the design profession. Whether preserving existing vegetation or planning new landscape plantings, the use of plants can play an important role in addressing water quality standards. Plants are an essential design element in numerous BMP techniques. A basic understanding of horticulture and plant characteristics is necessary for successfully integrating plants and plantings into better stormwater management. Basins, swales, bioretention areas, bioswales, rooftop gardens, wet ponds and other stormwater management tools require specific plant species and planting techniques. Value of Vegetation The use of vegetation for treating stormwater runoff is technically termed biofiltration. Vegetation is known to control soil erosion and slow the velocity of runoff enhancing the settling of sediment-bound pollutants. Vegetation can also absorb dissolved nutrients taking up these available compounds for plant growth and removing the excess nutrients (considered pollutants when in excess of natural processes). Biofiltration is one of many valuable best management practices (BMPs) in stormwater management. Pollutant Removal. Biofiltration is an effective method to remove runoff pollutants and improve water quality in stormwater management. Constructed wetlands have been used for decades in the treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater. These biofiltration systems are considered more cost effective than advanced mechanical wastewater treatment systems. Applying similar technology to the treatment of stormwater runoff is 1
2 long overdue. The effectiveness of the pollutant removal capabilities of vegetation is a function of time (length of treatment) and density of planting cover. Plant species selection should be based on adaptability to soil-moisture conditions and regular flooding. For the most effective pollutant removal value, the growth habit should be a primary consideration in species selection. A dense cover resulting from high colonization and growth rates creates the conditions that allow the physical, chemical and biological water cleansing processes. Figure (1) compares the foliage cover and root depth of mown grass and naturalized meadow plants. The denser foliage of the meadow plant community provides a better environment for the physical, biological and chemical processes that cleanse runoff. Mown grass cannot produce as dense a ground cover and has limited root penetration. Figure 1. Mown grass (left) has less stormwater treatment value than a naturalized meadow (right) due to thinner foliage cover and shallower root systems. Even the dense "litter" of organic material created by a thriving herbaceous plant community can create a substrate that traps sediments and supports the beneficial microbial growth that decomposes organic compounds. Microorganisms can convert significant amounts of nitrate to nitrogen gas, reducing the stress of excess nutrients on receiving waters. Aquatic Ecology. An additional value to using more natural systems for biofiltration in stormwater management is the positive effects on downstream aquatic environments. The cooler temperatures of treated runoff reduce the temperature stresses on different aquatic species. The organic material from the stormwater treatment areas (basins, swales, wet ponds, etc.) can contribute to the food chain in the stream ecology. Stream systems in Pennsylvania evolved as wooded riparian systems. The microorganisms, aquatic insects, amphibians and fish can trace their food sources to the leaf matter and "watershed tea" that comes from native vegetation. While human land uses and development patterns tend to remove native plant communities and natural riparian systems, stormwater design can at least to some extent help mitigate for this loss by restoring some lost ecological functions. 2
3 Stormwater Management Design One of the challenges of designing an effective stormwater biofiltration system is the highly variable nature of conditions associated with rainfall events. Variable flow rates and the intermittent and seasonal characteristics of stormwater runoff will influence the pollutant removal capacities of biofiltration. Generally, slower and longer runoff movements through the natural landscape systems will result in more effective removal of water-borne and dissolved pollutants and cooler water temperatures. The simplest objective for a stormwater landscape design is to provide extended opportunities for runoff treatment. Directing runoff across natural plant communities through the use of vegetated swales, planted level spreaders, rain gardens, bioswales, lawns, natural meadows, wooded areas and naturalized basins can take full advantage of the biofiltration value of plants. In order to utilize these opportunities for interaction and treatment, we must rethink our traditional stormwater management design that focused on the immediate collection and conveyance of runoff. Immediate channeling and conveyance in manmade structures eliminates the opportunity for rainwater runoff to move through cleansing vegetation. The conveyance system should be shortened, disconnected or otherwise redesigned to allow optimal interaction of stormwater with plants functioning as living, biological filters. Research has revealed that the time of treatment is a variable in the effectiveness of pollutant removal by plants. Longer time intervals for exposure of water-borne pollutants and water-soluble nutrients to growing plant root systems result in more effective plant uptake and pollutant removal. Slower water movements and delaying runoff release into receiving waters enhances water quality. Stormwater design that incorporates best management practices (BMPs) throughout the project site results in numerous opportunities for pollutant removal and mitigation for the impacts of land development and human land uses. BMPs can begin with rooftop gardens that can capture up to 70% of the rainfall before runoff moves into gutter or scupper discharge. Porous paving designs allow for water movement through permeable paving to subsurface reservoir storage before overflow discharge. Sheet flow across meadows, turf grass, and different upland plant communities can provide opportunities for both filtration and infiltration, reducing both pollutants and amounts of stormwater runoff. Level spreaders can be used to redistribute collecting waters and slow erosive velocities. Vegetative swales, open planted alternatives to subsurface conveyance pipes, can save considerable infrastructure costs as well as provide beneficial stormwater controls. Sediment forebays are an additional BMP used at the inlets of stormwater basins to provide velocity control and sediment removal. Created wetlands in designated stormwater systems do not come under federal wetland jurisdictions if they have been created specifically for stormwater management (not a pre-existing site resource). Plant Selection Plant species selection should consider a low maintenance routine aimed toward the eventual succession of the plant community to an appropriate ecotone. Initiating the 3
4 process toward a mature climax plant community and promoting its succession process through specific maintenance programming can reduce costs for the stormwater authority &/or basin owner while providing for the best contribution to water quality, water resources and ecological value (wildlife habitat/biodiversity). For a lasting effect on stormwater quality, the selected plants should evolve to a sustainable landscape, native in its contextual site, protecting the water resource. Consideration must also be given to the wide range of hydrologic conditions within stormwater management systems. Plant species selection should be based on the predicted soil moisture levels. Ranging from deep water (1-3 foot deep), shallow water (6 inch 1 foot deep), water s edge and low flow channels, areas of frequent or prolonged inundation and drier upland soil moisture levels will support distinctly different types of plant species. The following drawing (Figure 2.) illustrates the different planting zones that correspond to soil moisture conditions. Figure 2. Planting zones under variable soil moisture regimes. Planting Procedures Soil Considerations. While soil moisture is an important variable in selecting adaptable plant species, one often-overlooked variable is the soil structure. Most land areas involved in stormwater conveyance are highly disturbed portions of land development sites. Extensive soil moving, extended topsoil storage, subsoil compaction, heavy clay 4
5 compositions in basin construction, and other variables that affect the original soil profile have a significant affect on the adaptability of plants for successful growth. The use of heavy equipment, the movement of wet soils, stripping of topsoil, loss of organic material, additions of subsoil, fractured bedrock and construction debris combine to create serious challenges for plant root systems. Construction techniques usually result in compacted soils with little or organic material and limited pore space for water and oxygen exchange inn the root zone. Construction techniques for stormwater basins require compaction levels of 90-95% proctor density for the embankment structure. Typically, a limited layer of topsoil is placed on top of this severely compacted soil. These soil structure conditions combined with highly variable soil moisture are not ideal for plant establishment and growth. Good soil structure, texture and depth are necessary to establish and maintain healthy plant communities. A topsoil depth of 12 inches is required for effective plant growth in a vegetated swale or naturalized basin. The minimum topsoil depths of two to four inches often used in grass swales and detention basins is not adequate to establish and maintain a healthy perennial or woody plant community. Even grass cover cannot be sustained in such shallow topsoil conditions unless regularly fertilized. (It would be counterproductive to design a planting for water quality treatment - i.e. removal of excess nutrients, which required additional nutrient applications.) Deeper, more permeable soils can support sustainable plant communities. These healthier soils also serve as storage, filtering and cleansing systems for stormwater runoff. Permeable topsoil can act as a sponge absorbing several inches of rainfall before becoming saturated. Deeper soil supports greater populations of microorganisms that act as biological filters for polluted runoff. The deeper corresponding root systems that result from better soil conditions also provide beneficial soil erosion control, water and nutrient uptake and opportunities for infiltration. Timing. The installation time for many stormwater facilities is not always during an ideal planting season. Even under ideal conditions, the planting season may create challenges due to the locations of plant materials within highly variable runoff velocities and volumes. Within swales and low flow channels, some form of added stabilization should be used. The planting schedule must respond to the predicted planting time. If plant materials are to be installed during dry summer months, added irrigation will be necessary to insure plant survival. When the plant species being chosen is only available as bare-root, field clumps, or plugs, supplemental irrigation may be required in all but the most ideal spring planting conditions. Germination rates and germination seasons for selected seed mixes will dictate the use of erosion-control and stabilization fabrics to maintain soil stability and seed soil contact. Cool-season perennial grasses may germinate in both spring and fall, with little or no germination occurring during hot, dry summer months. Warm season grasses and herbaceous perennials will not germinate in fall and winter. These native meadow mixes would require added stabilization or a cover/nurse crop, such as hard or sheep fescue. Container plants will be very susceptible to rapid drying if planted after mid-may. Soil mixes used in container plant culture are 5
6 usually very lightweight and porous. When planted in a native soil setting, the artificial mix will dry out much more rapidly than the adjacent topsoil. The resulting desiccation to the root system will create drought stress and reduce transplant success. Flexibility should be built into a project s planting schedule to allow for the variety of installation times that often result in the land development process. Adding a timing element to the planting schedule that addresses the season for installation may offer better establishment success for stormwater landscapes. Consideration of the material size, root condition and availability of supplemental irrigation is invaluable. Corresponding Author For further information, please contact Jean Killhour Akers, RLA, Senior Project Manager, Simone Jaffe Collins, Landscape Architecture, 511 Old Lancaster Avenue, Berwyn, PA Phone: Fax: jakers@simonejaffecollins.com 6
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