Contents. xiii. 4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS General Alkene Series... 28

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1 Contents 1. INTRODUCI'ION... 1 Historical Background... 2 Legal Influences... 4 Hazards and Their Prevention... 4 Systems Approach... 5 Fire Protection Engineering Role... 5 Risk Management and Insurance... 6 Senior Management Responsibility and Accountability OVERVIEW OF OIL AND GAS FACILITIES... 9 Exploration... 9 Production Enhanced Oil 11 Secondary Recovery Water Injection Steam Injection Gas Injection Tertiary Recovery Chemical Injection Thermal Recovery Recirculated Gas Drive Transportation Refining Basic Distillation Thermal Cracking Alkylation and Catalytic Cracking Purification Typical Refinery Process Flow Production Percentages Marketing PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTION PRINCIPALS General Philosophy Worst Case Conditions Ambient Conditions Independent Layers of Protection (ILP) Design Principles Accountability and Auditability PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS General Alkene Series xiii

2 xiv Contents Alkyne Series Cyclic Hydrocarbons Characteristics of Hydrocarbons Lower Explosive Limit &EL)/Upper Explosive Limit VEL) Flash Point(FP) Autoignition Temperature (AIT) Vapor Density Vapor Pressure Specific Gravity Flammable Combustible Heat of Combustion Description of Some Common Hydrocarbons... : Natural Gas Crude Oil Methane (Cl) LNG. Liquefied Natural Gas (Cl) Ethane (C2) F ropane(c3) Butane(C4) LPG. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (C3 & C4) Gasoline (C5 to C11) Condensate (C4. C5. C6 & )) Gas and Fuel Oils (C12 to C19) Lubricating Oils and Greases (C20 to C27) Asphalts and Waxes (C28 & )) CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RELEASES. FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS.. 41 Hydrocarbon Releases Gaseous Releases Mists or Spray Releases Liquid Releases Nabre and Chemistry of Hydrocarbon Combustion Hydrocarbon Fires Nature of Hydrocarbon Explosions Process System Explosions (Detonations) Vapor Cloud Explosions Semi-confined Explosion Overpressures Vapor Cloud Explosion Overpressures Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVE) Smoke and Combustion Gases Mathematical Consequence Modeling Methods of Flame Extinguishment Cooling Oxygen Depravation Fuel Removal Chemical Reaction Inhibition Flame Blow Out Selection of Fire Control and Suppression Methods Terminology of Hydrocarbon Explosions and Fires HISTORICAL SURVEY OF FIRE AND EXPLOSIONS IN THE HYDROCARBON INDUSTRIES Relevancy of Incidents... 63

3 Contents xv Offshore Oil Production and Exploration (USA) Worst Fatal Incidents Worst Property Losses Summary RISKANALYSIS Safety Flow Chart Risk Identification and Evaluation A. Qualitative Reviews B. Quantitative Reviews C. Specialized Supplemental Studies Risk Acceptance Criteria Relevant and Accurate Data Resources SEGREGATION. SEPARATION AND ARRANGEMENT Segregation Separation Manned Facilities and Locations Storage Facilities-Tanks Process Units Flares Critical Utilities and Support Systems Fire Zones Arrangement Facility Access and Egress GRADING. CONTAINMENT. AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Drainage Systems Process and Area Drainage Surface Drainage Open Channels and Trenches Spill Containment PROCESS CONTROLS Human Observation Instrumentation and Automation Electronic Process Control Process System Instrumentation and Alarms Transfer and Storage Controls Burner Management Systems EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN Definition and Objective Design Philosophy Activation Mechanisms Levels of Shutdown Reliability and Fail Safe Logic ESD/DCS Interfaces Activation Points Activation Hardware Features Isolation Valve Requirements Emergency Isolation Valves (EIV) Subsea Isolation Valves (SSIV) Protection Requirements

4 xvi Contents System Interactions DEPRESSURIZATION. BLOWDOWN AND VENTING Objective Blowdown Venting Flares OVERPRESSURE AND THERMAL RELIEF Pressure Relief Valves (PSV) Thermal Relief Solar Heat Thermal Relief Fluid Disposal Isolation Circumvention Disposal to the Oily Water Sewer Surface Runoff Pressure Relief Device Locations CONTROL OF IGNITION SOURCES Open Flames. Hot Work and Smoking Electrical Arrangements Electrical Area Classification Surface Temperature Limits Classified Locations and Release Sources Protection Measures Explosionproof Rated Equipment Intrinsically Safe Rated Equipment Hermetically Sealed Electrical Equipment Purging Relocation of Devices Surface Temperatures Static Lightning Internal Combustion Engines SparkArrestors HandTools ELIMINATION OF PROCESS RELEASES Inventory Reduction Vents and Relief Valves Sample Points Drainage Systems Storage Facilities Pump Seals Vibration Stress Failure of Piping Rotating Equipment FIRE AND EXPLOSION RESISTANT SYSTEMS Explosions Definition of Explosion Potentials Explosion Protective Design Arrangements Vapor Dispersion Enhancements Water Sprays Air Cooler Fans

5 Contents xvii Location Optimization Based on Prevailing Winds Supplemental Ventilation Systems Damage Limiting Construction Fireproofing Fireproofing Specificatioas Fireproofing Materials Radiation Shields Water Cooling Sprays Vapor Dispersion Water Sprays Locations Requiring Consideration of Fire Resistant Measures Flame Resistance Fire Dampers Smoke Dampers Flame and Spark Arrestors Piping Detonation Arrestors FIRE AND GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS Fire and Smoke Detection Methods Human Surveillance Manual Activation Callpoint (MAC)/Manual Pull Station (MPS) Telephone Reporting Portable Radios Smoke Detectors Ionization Photoelectric Dual Chamber Very Early Smoke Detection and Alarm PSDA) Thermal or Heat Detectors Optical (Flame) Detectors Ultraviolet (VV) Detector Single Frequency Infrared (IR) Detectors Dual or Multiple Frequency Infrared (IR/IR) Detectors Ultravioletflnfiared (UV/IR) Detectors Multi-Band Detectors Gas Detection Application Typical Hydrocarbon Facility Applications Catalytic Detectors Description Infra-Red (IR) Beam Gas Detection Application (IR Beam) Alarm Setting Calibration Hazardous Area Classification Rating Fire and Gas Detection Control Panels Graphic Annunciation Power Supplies Emergency Baclolp Power Time Delay Voting Logic Cross Zoning Executive Action Circuit Supervision

6 xviii Contents 18. EVACUATION Alarms and Notifications Alarm Initiation Evacuation Routes Emergency Doors. Exits. and Escape Hatches Marking and Identification Emergency Illumination Offshore Evacuation NortNSouth Atlantic and NortNSouth Pacific Environments Temperate and Tropic Environments Means of Egress Flotation Assistance METHODS OF FIRE SUPPRESSION Portable Fire Extinguishers Water Suppression Systems Water Supplies Fire Pumps Fire Pump Standards and Tests Firewater Distribution Systems Firewater Control and Isolation Valves Sprinkler Systems Water Deluge Systems Water Spray Systems Water Flooding Steam Smothering Water Curtains Blow Out Water Iqjection System Hydrants. Monitors and Hose Reels Nozzles Foamwater Suppression Systems Types Concentrations Systems High Expansion Foam Gaseous Systems Carbon Dioxide Systems Halon Halon Replacements Oxygen Deficient Gas Inerting Systems Chemical Systems Wet Chemical Dry Chemical Dual Agent Systems Chemical and Foam SPECIAL LOCATIONS. FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT Arctic Environments Desert Environments Offshore Facilities Offshore Floating Exploration and Production Facilities Pipelines Wellheads-Exploration (Onshore and Offshore) Loading Facilities

7 Contents xix Electrical Equipment and Communication Rooms Battery Rooms Enclosed Turbines or Gas Compressor Packages Heat Transfer Systems Cooling Towers Oil Filled Transformers Hydrocarbon Testing Laboratories Warehouses Cafeterias and Kitchens HUMAN FACTOR AND ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS Human Attitude Access and Acceptability Instructions, Markings and Labeling Color and Identification Colors Numbering and Identification Instrumentation Alarm Overload Noise Control Panic Security Accommodation of Religious Functions APPENDIX A: TESTING FIREWATER SYSTEMS A.l Testing of Firewater Pumping Systems A.2 Testing of Firewater Distribution Systems A.3 Testing of Sprinkler and Deluge Systems A.4 Testing of Foam Systems A5 Testing of Hose Reels and Monitors APPENDIX B: REFERENCE DATA B.l Fire Resistance Testing Standards B.2 Explosion and Fire Resistance Ratings B.3 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) B.4 Hydraulic Data B.5 Selected Conversion Factors ACRONYM LIST GWSSARY INDEX

Explosion Protection Engineering Principles

Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles for Oil, Gas, Chemical and Related Facilities Second edition Dennis P. Nolan ELSEVIER AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD