Relationship of Soil Moisture with the Incidence of Pod Rot in Peanut in West Texas 1
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1 Reltionship of Soil Moisture with the Incidence of Pod Rot in Penut in West Texs 1 V. Choppktl*, T.A. Wheeler 2, G.L. Schuster 3, C. Roinson 3, nd D.O. Porter 4 ABSTRACT Pod rot is prolem on penut in West Texs nd mny other res. Crop consultnts scouting fields ssume tht pod rot will e more severe in high moisture res of the field, nd therefore is the intensity of their smpling to those res. The ojective of this reserch ws to evlute the reltionship etween soil moisture nd pod rot incidence in irrigted fields. Studies were conducted in four fields locted in Yokum County, TX in 2002 nd Surfce soil moisture (0 to 12 cm in depth) ws mesured t 5 min nd 24 hr fter the center pivot irrigtion system pssed from ech smpling point (20 to 34 points/field). Three plnt smples were collected t ech point in August nd Octoer, nd were evluted for pod rot incidence. In one field where Pythium spp., ut not Rhizoctoni spp. ws isolted from rotted pods, pod rot incidence in August ws negtively correlted with soil moisture t 5 min (r , P , n 5 25) nd 24 hr (r , P , n 5 25). No correltions etween disese nd soil moisture in the other three fields ws found. Results from these studies suggest tht pod rot ssocited with Pythium spp., or Pythium spp. nd Rhizoctoni spp., is not greter in wetter res of irrigted penut fields. A comprehensive pproch to smpling, irrespective of soil moisture content, is essentil for ccurte estimtion of pod rot. Key Words: Pythium, Rhizoctoni. Penut is n importnt csh crop in Texs with production estimted t 0.4 million metric tons during 2005 nd n verge sttewide yield t 3,850 kg/h (Texs Agriculturl Sttistics Annul Bulletin, 2005). Penut production is concentrted in the Southern High Plins of Texs (West Texs), which contriutes out 70% of the stte s totl 1 This reserch ws supported y the Texs Stte Precision Agriculture Inititive, Western Penut Growers Assocition, Texs Agriculturl Experiment Sttion, nd West Texs A&M University. 2 Texs Agriculturl Experiment Sttion, Luock, TX Division of Agriculture, WTAMU, Cnyon, TX Texs Coopertive Extension, Luock, TX *Corresponding uthor: V. Choppktl (emil: VijyC@ BioSfeSystems.com). yield (Texs Agriculturl Sttistics Annul Bulletin, 2005). Pod rot is n importnt disese prolem on penuts in West Texs (Wheeler et l., 2006). The disese is widespred mong the penut growing res of the world with yield losses rnging from 5 50% (Frnk, 1968; Kolte, 1984; Mercer, 1977). In the United Sttes, pod rot is prolem in penut growing sttes such s North Crolin, Oklhom, Virgini nd Texs (Filonow et l, 1985; Grren, 1964; Hollowell et l., 1998; Wheeler et l., 2006 ). As erly s in 1961, sustntil losses in yield nd mrket qulity of penuts due to pod rot ws reported in Virgini (Grren, 1964). In Oklhom. 43% of 37 penut fields smpled during the erly 1980 s hd pod rot with the disese incidence rnging from % (Filonow et l., 1985). In North Crolin, frm survey estimted men incidence of pod rot t 6.6% in 1995 nd 5.9% in 1996 (Hollowell et l.,1998). Most recently, pod rot ws reported in 58% of the 107 smpled penut fields in Texs Southern High Plins (Wheeler et l., 2006). Vrious iotic nd iotic fctors re involved in incidence nd severity of pod rot. Species of Pythium nd Rhizoctoni re often the most importnt cusl orgnisms of pod rot (Frnk, 1968; Grren, 1963; Hollowell et l., 1998; Wheeler et l., 2006). Other fungi isolted from disesed pods include Aspergillus spp., Cylindrocldium prsiticum, Fusrium spp., Mcrophomin phseoli, Rhizopus spp., Sclerotini minor nd Sclerotium rolfsii (Csinos et l., 1984; Hollowell et l., 1998; Mercer, 1977; Porter et l., 1982). Soilorne mites nd plnt prsitic nemtodes were lso een reported to ply significnt role in pod rot incidence (Grci nd Mitchell, 1975; Shew nd Beute, 1979). However, plnt pthogens my not lwys e the primry cuse of pod rot. Nutrient imlnce such s deficiency of clcium nd excess of other competitive ctions in the pods ws shown to predispose the pods to pthogen infection (Csinos et l., 1984). Mny studies hve underlined the importnce of clcium in controlling pod rot (Csinos nd Gines, 1986; Grren, 1964; Hllock nd Grren,1968). However, rguments to the positive effects of clcium in controlling pod rot were lso found (Filonow et l, 1988). Resistnce to Pythium pod rot hs een reported in some penut genotypes (Frnk nd Krikun, Penut Science (2008) 35:
2 SOIL MOISTURE AND POD ROT IN WEST TEXAS ; Grren, 1970; Godoy et l, 1984; Godoy et l., 1985; Smith et l., 1989). However, most of the current high oleic runner mrket types tht comprise the lrgest percentge of crege in West Texs re susceptile to Pythium pod rot infection (Texs Penut Production Guide, 2001). Even though cultivrs such s Tmrun 96 nd Tmspn 90 hve some resistnce to Pythium pod rot, they re not widely cultivted in West Texs ((Texs Penut Production Guide, 2001). Appliction of clcium source such s gypsum t pegging my e helpful for pod rot control. However, West Texs soils re usully high in clcium nd ny dditionl ppliction in the form of gypsum to control pod rot cn e expensive for the grower due to high trnsporttion costs (Texs Penut Production Guide, 2001). Fungicides used to control pod rot (zoxystroin, mefenoxm, flutolnil) re pplied pproximtely d fter plnting when pegs or young pods re present. While lef spot control recommendtions re to pply fungicides on d intervl, pod rot pplictions re more typiclly 30 d prt. In West Texs, disese occurs from mid-july through Septemer nd the crop is dug in lte Septemer nd through Octoer. According to the fungicide lel, two fungicide pplictions provide less thn 60 d of protection. However, the susceptile period lsts for t lest 75 d if counting from the onset of pegging (Texs Penut Production Guide, 2001). Protection during the entire period when pegs or pods re present requires t lest three fungicide pplictions, therey significntly incresing production costs. A mjor percentge of penut crege is scouted for disese in West Texs nd the dvice of scout is key fctor in mking decision on control including use of fungicide (Smith et l., 1998). Hence, mny producers prefer to use scouts to recommend the timing of the pplictions, rther thn spry y clendr dte. At $20/h in Terry nd Yokum counties (pers. comm. Texs Pest Mngement Assocition), the cost of crop consultnt in this region is considerly less thn fungicide ppliction for pod rot control. Consultnts prefer to dely the first fungicide spry s long s possile nd sve n ppliction for lte August or erly Septemer when the risk of pod rot incidence is gretest. Irrigtion is importnt for profitle penut production in West Texs, where verge nnul rinfll is, 51 cm nd rinfll from June through August is, 19 cm. In West Texs, 61 to 71 cm of wter is needed per growing seson for optimum penut yield nd the months of highest wter demnd re June, July, nd August (Texs Penut Production Guide, 2001). However, irrigtion cn increse the development of diseses y its influence on moisture nd temperture (Frnk nd Ashri, 1985; Frnk, 1967; Porter et l., 1987). Seedling diseses cused y Pythium spp. nd Rhizoctoni solni re more severe under cool, wet conditions (Btemn, 1961; Klisiwicz, 1968; Mendel et l., 1995; Wright, 1957). In irrigted penuts, diseses such s pod rot re influenced y vrious fctors which include structurl mke up of pods (Godoy et l., 1985; Pettit et l., 1975); the complex of pthogens present including multiple species of Pythium nd Rhizoctoni solni (Grci nd Mitchell, 1975; Hollowell et l., 1998; Wheeler et l., 2006); nd the effect of fungicides tht my trget only prt of the pthogen complex, nd do not erdicte the prolem (Texs Penut Production Guide, 2001). The logicl view tht wetter soil equls more disese my not e n dequte hypothesis while mking recommendtions for controlling the disese on irrigted penuts. The purpose of this study ws to evlute whether there ws consistent nd positive ssocition of pod rot incidence cused y Pythium spp. lone or in ssocition with Rhizoctoni spp., with soil moisture in irrigted penut fields in n environment where wter is not significntly limiting infection or plnt growth. Mterils nd Methods Studies were conducted in four commercil fields in Yokum County, TX during 2002 nd 2003 (Tle 1). The producer prcticed four-yer rottion progrm with whet -wtermelon-whetpenut. Fields were selected tht hd history of pod rot in previous penut crops. In ddition, generl survey of these fields scertined the presence of pod rot. In ech yer, the fields chosen were Brownfield (Lomy, mixed, superctive, thermic Arenic Aridic Pleustlfs) fine snd or Amrillo (Fine-lomy, mixed, superctive, thermic Aridic Pleustlfs) lomy fine snd, (Tle 1). The Brownfield type soils hd higher snd content nd lower cly content thn the Amrillo type soils. One of the four fields (field 22) ppered to hve greter slope compred to other three fields. Soil nlysis report from fields 22 nd 32 indicted high concentrtions of nutrients including clcium (Tle 2). The soil ph ws ner neutrl nd orgnic mtter content ws very low (Tle 2). All fields hd pproximtely 25 h plnted to AT1-1, runner type penut nd 25 h tht ws plnted to whet in the fll nd fllowed the following summer. The fields were irrigted y center-pivot, sprinkler irrigtion systems.
3 118 PEANUT SCIENCE Tle 1. Attriutes of commercil penut fields where the reltionship etween soil moisture nd pod rot ws studied. Fungicide Field Yer Soil series Cultivr Plnting dte Nme Appliction dte Rte g i/h Brownfield fine snd AT1-1 5 My 2002 Azoxystroin 15 Jul. 249 Teuconzole 6 Sep Amrillo lomy fine snd AT1-1 4 My 2002 Azoxystroin 24 Jun. 249 Flutolnil 23 Jul. 694 Mefenoxm 23 Jul. 286 Mefenoxm 21 Aug. 203 Chlorothlonil 2 Sep Brownfield fine snd AT Apr Flutolnil 3 Jul. 741 Mefenoxm 3 Jul. 295 Flutolnil 9 Aug. 741 Mefenoxm 9 Aug Amrillo lomy fine snd AT Apr Flutolnil 1 Jul. 741 Mefenoxm 1 Jul. 295 Mefenoxm 3 Aug. 295 Fungicide pplictions of mefenoxm (Ridomil Gold EC; Syngent Crop Protection, Greensoro, NC) were pplied y the producer to fields 32, 40, nd 42 for Pythium pod rot (Tle 1). Field 22, which hd Pythium incited erly-seson peg rot ws treted with zoxystroin (Aound FL; Syngent Crop Protection, Greensoro, NC) (Tle 1). All four fields were treted with either zoxystroin (Aound FL; Syngent Crop Protection, Greensoro, NC) or flutolnil (Moncut 70 DF; Gown Compny, Yum, AZ) or oth to control Rhizoctoni pod rot (Tle 1). Moisture redings were tken y following the sprinkler, rther thn independent of the sprinkler position, since rinfll totls for July nd August 2002 nd 2003 were low. Soil moisture ws mesured in August using thet proe (Model: ML2x, Delt-T Devices Ltd., Cmridge, UK) t 5 min nd 24 hr fter irrigting prticulr res in the field. Thet proe uses simplified impednce mesuring system to determine the soil wter content (Gskin nd Miller, 1996). The device consists of n oscilltor, fixed impednce section of coxil trnsmission line nd sensing proe whose impednce depend on the dielectric constnt of the surrounding soil. An mplitude difference occurs when there is difference in the impednce etween the proe nd coxil trnsmission, following signl propgtion from the oscilltor. Amplitude difference in turn provides the pprent dielectric constnt vlue, which is directly proportionl to the volumetric wter content. The liner reltionship is depicted s h v 5 (!e 2 0 )/ 1 where, h v 5 volumetric soil wter content, expressed s rtio (m 3 /m 3 ), e 5 pprent dielectric constnt nd 0 nd 1 re constnts tht chnge with soil type. The method used in the thet proe compres well with results from the stndrd neutron proe under simulted field conditions, confirming its cceptnce in generl irrigtion reserch (Gskin nd Miller, 1996). Soil-specific clirtions were conducted on eight undistured soil smples collected from ech field (Fig. 1A nd 1B). Thet proe mesurements were tken y inserting the sensing hed into the soil core smple. Soil wet weights were recorded nd the smple ws oven dried t 105 C for 24 hr. Grvimetric soil wter content (%), dry ulk density (gms/cm 3 ) nd volumetric soil moisture content (%) were determined (Grdner, 1986; Tle 2. Soil nlysis report of commercil penut fields. Field OM % Soil ph Phosphorus P Potssium K Mgnesium Mg Clcium C Nitrte NO3 CEC meq/100 g PBS c K Mg C Orgnic Mtter. Ction Exchnge Cpcity expressed in milliequivlents per 100 g of soil. c Percent Bse Sturtion.
4 SOIL MOISTURE AND POD ROT IN WEST TEXAS 119 Fig. 2. Representtion of dt loctions in field 22. A line of five points represents the position of irrigtion pivot. Soil moisture nd pod rot incidence ws collected t ech of these points. A similr strtegy ws followed in ll of the fields. Fig. 1. Clirtion of thet proe in grower field soils: (A) Amrillo lomy fine snd, (B) Brownfield fine snd. Hrtge nd Blke, 1986). Estimted volumetric soil moisture content (%) ws regressed ginst the thet proe mesurements (m 3 /m 3 ) to derive the following liner model: Volumetric soil wter content (%) 5 3 thet proe reding (m 3 /m 3 ) +, where 5 slope nd 5 intercept. The sensing hed of the thet proe ws inserted into the soil such tht the sensing element mesured volumetric moisture content (m 3 /m 3 ) over 6 12 cm depth. The typicl penut fruiting depth is 6 8 cm. The difference etween the moisture redings tken t 5 min nd 24 hr ws clculted for ech field nd expressed s men percentge dringe. The totl numer of smpling sites vried for ech field (Tle 3). Smpling points were long the line (rdius) of the sprinkler irrigtion system with 3 4 hr intervls, to llow the sprinkler to proceed frther round the field (Fig. 2). Gps in the field where no dt were collected occurred when penuts were irrigted during the night hours. After the 24 hr soil moisture reding, three plnt smples were collected t ech moisture mesuring point nd percent incidence of pod rot ws estimted y weighing pods with symptoms of pod rot divided y totl weight of pods from three plnts. An dditionl disese ssessment ws mde in Octoer t the sme loctions s in August. Eight pods with chrcteristic symptoms of pod rot were collected t hrvest from ech smpling point nd were ssyed for the presence of fungi. Pods were wshed for severl minutes nd then dried for 2 3 hr t room temperture. Ech pod lesion ws split into two pieces, one plted out on wter gr nd the other on Pythium selective medium (Lewis nd Filonow, 1990). Mycelium ws trnsferred to potto dextrose gr to otin pure cultures for identifiction. Men percentge of totl pods tht were positive for either Pythium or Rhizoctoni ws clculted for ech smple. Product-moment correltions were clculted etween the soil moisture redings nd disese incidence tht occurred during August nd Octoer, using the CORR procedure from SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cry, NC). The Yokum County wether sttion within the Texs Tech-West Texs mesonet system (ltitude , longitude ) ws used to monitor soil temperture nd rinfll events. Rinfll totls would not necessrily e ccurte since the sttion ws some distnce from field sites, ut provides good indiction of sesonl trends. Results The wether in Yokum County ws dry during July nd August in 2002 nd 2003 nd hence wter pplied to the penut fields through irrigtion ws the primry source of moisture during this period. Immeditely fter irrigtion, soil moisture content differences within field were s low s 6% (field 22) to s gret s 14% (field 40) (Tle 3). Overll, the incidence of pod rot ws higher in August
5 120 PEANUT SCIENCE Tle 3. Soil moisture nd pod rot incidence in commercil penut fields. Soil moisture Pod rot rnge e Pod rot men f %D d Aug g Oct h Aug Oct Field N Rnge Men Rnge Men 5 min 24 hr c i Numer of oservtions. Rnge nd men of % volumetric soil wter t 5 min fter irrigtion. c Rnge nd men of % volumetric soil wter t 24 hr fter irrigtion. d Men % dringe 5 (M M 24 ) / (M 0.08 ). e Rnge of pod rot incidence in %, mesured in August nd Octoer. f Averge pod rot incidence in %, mesured in August nd Octoer. g Month of August. h Month of Octoer. i Stndrd devition. compred to the end of the growing seson except in field 32, where incresed disese incidence ws oserved t hrvest (Tle 3). Pod rot incidence in August ws negtively correlted with soil moisture t 5 min (r , P , n 5 25) nd 24 hr (r , P , n 5 25) in field 22 (Tle 3). For the sme field, pod rot incidence in Octoer ws not significntly correlted with soil moisture redings (Tle 4). This field hd sustntil topogrphicl chnges, nd the highest incidence of pod rot ws found on the steepest slope of hill, rther thn in the low re of the field. No significnt correltions were found etween pod rot incidence nd soil moisture in other fields (Tle 4). Infected pods showed symptoms of either lck wtery rot or rown decy nd seeds inside severely rotted pods were completely decyed. In ll four fields, Pythium spp. ws the most common pthogen isolted from rotted pods, followed y Rhizoctoni spp. In fields 22 nd 32, only Pythium spp. were found wheres oth Pythium spp. nd Rhizoctoni solni were found in fields 40 nd 42 (Tle 5). Sclerotium rolfsii ws isolted from two smpling points in field 22 (Dt not presented). Discussion The negtive correltion etween soil moisture nd pod rot incidence oserved in field 22 is contrry to tht predicted y controlled experiments on the effect of Pythium spp. nd soil mtric potentil, where the severity of infection ws greter under wet soil conditions (Bhtti nd Krft, 1992; Hering et l., 1987; Pnkhurst et l., 1995; Pieczrk nd Awi, 1978; Stnghellini et l., 1983). High soil moisture content fvors the development of oospores nd prevented the formtion of sporngi y Pythium ultimum (Binridge, 1970). However, it is importnt to note tht soil moisture nd temperture optiml for infection cn vry mong different species of Pythium Tle 4. Product-moment correltions of pod rot incidence with soil moisture collected from four commercil penut fields during Field numer Smpling dte 5 min c 24 hr d 5 min 24 hr 5 min 24 hr 5 min 24 hr August (0.04) (0.03) (0.46) (0.56) (1.00) (0.67) (0.50) (0.72) Octoer (0.12) (0.16) (0.80) (0.95) (0.54) (0.42) (0.28) (0.42) Significnce level is denoted in prentheses. Pod rot incidence mesured in August nd Octoer. c Soil moisture red 5 min fter irrigtion. d Soil moisture red 24 hr fter irrigtion.
6 SOIL MOISTURE AND POD ROT IN WEST TEXAS 121 Tle 5. Recovery of Pythium spp. nd Rhizoctoni from rotted pods collected from commercil penut fields. Field N Pythium spp Rhizoctoni solni Percentge of pods Totl pods ssyed. At hrvest, 8 pods with pod rot symptoms were ssyed from ll three plntsmples collected from ech moisture mesuring point. Percentge of totl pods tht were positive for either Pythium or Rhizoctoni. (Biesrock nd Hendrix, 1970). Root necrosis of pech cused y P. vexns ws severe t periodiclly sturted soil wter regimes, ut tht P. irregulre ws unffected y soil wter conditions (Biesrock nd Hendrix, 1970). Klisiwicz (1968) found tht seedling disese of sunflower cused y Pythium ultimum nd P. irregulre ws worse t cool tempertures, ut tht P. phnidermtum ws more dmging t higher tempertures. Pythium myriotylum is lso more of wrm temperture species (Gy, 1969). A recent survey hs shown tht Pythium myriotylum, P. ultimum, nd P. irregulre were the most common species isolted from penut pods in West Texs (Wheeler et l., 2006). However, field 22, which hd such n unusul reltionship etween soil moisture nd disese, hd n unknown species of Pythium. Isoltes were collected nd tested from this field on two occsions for species identifiction, ut no sexul structures formed. Soil moisture ws mesured t two intervls (5 min nd 24 hr fter irrigtion) to ssess the dringe condition of the fields. Soil moisture immeditely fter irrigtion is suject to loss y grvittionl forces nd moisture retention is hevily dependent on soil texture, nture of the soil horizontion, recency of irrigtion event, nd lndscpe differences (Cssel nd Nielsen, 1986). Field elevtion chnges, irrigtion nozzle spcing, nozzle types, nd proximity to the center pivot of the irrigtion system my lso ffect the quntity of wter reching n re of the field (Krnz, 1988). The percentge dringe ws reltively high in field 22 compred to the other three fields. Field 22 hd ovious slopes nd low-lying res tht were not seen in other fields, which could hve resulted in high runoff rte, surfce movement of pplied wter within the field nd reduced infiltrtion. Even though Pythium spp. were isolted more frequently thn Rhizoctoni in ll the fields, the overll percentge of positive isoltions ws low. It is not known whether fungicide pplictions mde during the seson for pod rot control or soil fctors such s ph hve ffected the men percent recovery of Pythium spp. nd Rhizoctoni spp. The frequency of Pythium spp. nd Rhizoctoni spp. nd the percentge of disese cused y ech of these pthogens my chnge from yer to yer (Hollowell et l., 1998; Wheeler et l., 2006). Pod rot ws not ssocited with ny ove ground symptoms or root infection. In ll the fields except field 32, estimted pod rot incidence ws higher during August compred to the estimtes mde ner the end of the growing seson. It is not known why pod rot levels were high in field 32, since it ws treted oth in July nd August with mefenoxm (Tle 1). Pod rot ws ggregted in the smpled fields. An eqution developed sed on men disese incidence nd vrince hs estimted tht the numer of smples required to dequtely estimte pod rot (coefficient of vrition50.5) ws 42, 12 nd 7 when fields hd 1, 5 or 10% pod rot, respectively (Wheeler et l., unpul.dt, 2006). Results from the current study suggest tht smples tken from the wettest res of field were not more likely to hve pod rot thn smples tken from drier res. Therefore, scouting progrm for pod rot should not e sed on site-specific soil moisture content. Insted, scouting should e done throughout the field, without is towrd soil moisture. Indequte smpling my result in wrong estimtion of the disese. Site-specific tretment of wet res with fungicides for mngement of pod rot is lso not suggested. When fields re smpled with indequte intensity, recommendtions for controlling pod rot including fungicide pplictions should e sed on other fctors such s field history nd plnt mturity rther thn sed on field scouting. Acknowledgments We sincerely thnk the Western Penut Growers Assocition for funding this project; nd Mr. Jerry Hrtmn, owner of J&A Frms, Plins, TX for his ssistnce throughout our study in his penut fields. Literture Cited Binridge, A Sporultion y Pythium ultimum t vrious soil moisture tensions. Trns. Br. Mycol. Soc. 55: Btemn, D.F The effect of soil moisture upon development of poinsetti root rots. Phytopthology 51: Bhtti, M.A. nd J.M. Krft Influence of soil moisture on root rot nd wilt of chickpe. Plnt Dis 76:
7 122 PEANUT SCIENCE Biesrock, J.A. nd F.F. Jr. Hendrix Influence of soil wter nd temperture on root necrosis of pech cused y Pythium spp. Phytopthology 60: Cssel, D.K. nd D.R. Nielsen Field cpcity nd ville wter cpcity. pp In Methods of Soil Anlysis: Physicl nd Minerlogicl Methods. 2 nd ed. Soil Science Society of Americ, Inc., Mdison, WI. Csinos, A.S. nd T.P. Gines Penut pod rot complex: geocrposphere nutrient imlnce. Plnt Dis 70: Csinos, A.S., T.P. Gines, nd M.E. Wlker Involvement of nutrition nd fungi in the penut pod rot complex. Plnt Dis 68: Filonow, A.B., H.A. Melouk, nd M. Mrtin Effect of clcium sulfte on pod rot of penut c.v Erly Bunch (Astr.) Proc. Am. Penut Res. Educ. Soc. 17:44. Filonow, A.B., H.A. Melouk, M. Mrtin, nd J. Sherwood Effect of clcium sulfte on pod rot of penut. Plnt Disese 72: Frnk, Z.R Effect of irrigtion procedure on Pythium rot of groundnut pods. Plnt Dis. Rep. 51: Frnk, Z.R Pythium pod rot of penut. Phytopthology 58: Frnk, Z.R. nd A. Ashri Pythium pod rot reduction in penuts, s ffected y reeding for resistnce nd y disese level. Phytoprsitic 13: Frnk, Z.R. nd J. Kirkun Evlution of penut (Archis hypoge) vrieties for Verticillium resistnce. Plnt Dis. Rep. 53: Grci, R. nd D.J. Mitchell Synergistic interctions of Pythium myriotylum with Fusrium solni nd Meloidogyne renri in pod rot of penut. Phytopthology 65: Grdner, W.H Wter Content. pp In Methods of Soil Anlysis: Physicl nd Minerlogicl Methods. 2 nd ed. Soil Science Society of Americ, Inc., Mdison, WI. Grren, K.H Evidence of two different pthogens of penut pod rot. Phytopthology 53:746. Grren, K.H Lndplster nd soil rot of penut pods in Virgini. Plnt Dis. Rep. 48: Grren, K.H Recent developments in reserch on penut pod rot. Proc. 3 rd Nt l. Penut Reserch Conf. Auurn, AL., Grren, K.H Rhizoctoni solni vs. Pythium myriotylum s pthogens of penut pod rot rekdown. Plnt Dis. Rep. 54: Gskin, G.J. nd Miller, J.D Mesurement of soil wter content using simplified impednce mesuring technique. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 63: Gy, J.D Effects of temperture nd moisture on snp en dmping off cused y three isoltes of Pythium myriotylum. Plnt Dis. Rep. 53: Godoy, R., O.D. Smith, nd T.E. Boswell Evlution of six penut genotypes for pod rot resistnce. Penut Sci 11: Godoy, R., O.D. Smith, R.A. Ter, nd R.E. Pettit Antomicl trits ssocited with pod rot resistnce in penut. Penut Sci 12: Hllock, D.L. nd K.H. Grren Pod rekdown, yield, nd grde of Virgini-type penuts s ffected y C, Mg, nd K sulftes. Agron. J. 60: Hrtge, K.H. nd G.R. Blke Bulk Density. pp In Methods of Soil Anlysis: Physicl nd Minerlogicl Methods. 2 nd ed. Soil Science Society of Americ, Inc., Mdison, WI. Hering, T.F., R.J. Cook, nd W. Tng Infection of whet emryos y Pythium species during seed germintion nd the influence of seed ge nd soil mtric potentil. Phytopthology 77: Hollowell, J.E., B.B. Shew, M.K. Beute, nd Z.G. Ad Occurrence of pod rot pthogens in penuts grown in North Crolin. Plnt Dis 82: Klisiwicz, J.M Reltion of Pythium spp. to root rot nd dmping-off of sfflower. Phytopthology 58: Kolte, S.J Penut diseses. pp In Diseses of nnul edile oilseed crops, vol. 1. CRC Press, Inc., Boc Rton, FL. Krnz, W Flow Control Devices for Center Pivot Irrigtion Systems. File G A. Coopertive Extension, University of Nersk, Lincoln, NE. Lewis, P.I. nd A.B. Filonow Rection of penut cultivrs to Pythium pod rot nd their influence on popultions of Pythium spp. in soil. Penut Sci 17: Mendel, H.H., H.C. Hung, G.C. Kozu, nd D.J.S. Brr Effect of soil moisture nd temperture on seedling emergence nd incidence of Pythium dmping-off in sfflower (Crthmus tinctorius L.). Cnd. J. Plnt Sci. 75: Mercer, P.C A pod rot of penuts in Mlwi. Plnt Dis. Rep. 61: Pnkhurst, C.E., H.J. McDonld, nd B.G. Hwke Influence of soil wter mtric potentil on the control of Pythium root infection of whet with metlxyl in two contrsting soils of South Austrli. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 35: Porter, D.M., D.H. Smith, nd R. Rodriguez-Kn Penut plnt diseses. pp In Penut Science nd Technology, H.E. Ptee nd C.T. Young (eds.), Americn Penut Res. nd Ed. Soc., Inc, Yokum, TX. Porter, D.M., F.S. Wright, nd N.L. Powell Effects of sprinkler irrigtion on penut diseses in Virgini. Plnt Dis 71: Pieczrk, D.J. nd G.S. Awi Influence of soil wter potentil nd temperture on severity of Pythium root rot of snp ens. Phytopthology 68: Pettit, R.E., R.A. Ter, nd O.D. Smith Structurl fetures of penut pods: Archis hypoge cultivrs. Proc. Amer. Penut Res. And Educ. Assoc. 7:91. (str). Shew, H.D. nd M.K. Beute Evidence for the involvement of soilorne mites in Pythium pod rot of penut. Phytopthology 69: Smith, D.T., M.G. New, nd J.T. Criswell Pests, Pesticide Use & Mngement Prctices in the Southwestern Penut Industry. Ntionl Agriculturl Pesticide Impct Assessment Progrm USDA/CSREES nd the Southern Regionl Office. Technicl report 98-08, Texs A&M University, College Sttion, nd Oklhom Stte University, Stillwter. Smith, O.D., T.E. Boswell, W.J. Grichr, nd C.E. Simpson Rection of select penut (Archis hypoge L.) lines to southern stem rot nd Pythium pod rot under vried disese pressure. Penut Sci 16:9-14. Stnghellini, M.E., L.J. Stowell, W.C. Kronlnd, nd P. von Bretzel Distriution of Pythium phnidermtum in rhizosphere soil nd fctors ffecting expression of the solute inoculum potentil. Phytopthology 73: Texs Agriculturl Sttistics Annul Bulletin Texs Agriculturl Sttistics Service, Austin, TX. Texs Penut Production Guide. 2001, pp Texs Coopertive Extension Fct Sheet B Wheeler, T.A., C.R. Howell, J. Cotton, nd D. Porter Pythium species ssocited with pod rot on west Texs penut nd in vitro sensitivity of isoltes to mefenoxm nd zoxystroin. Penut Sci 30:9-13. 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