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3 The Nature and Properties of Soils, Global Edition Table of Contents Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface 1 The Soils Around Us 1.1 What Ecosystem Services Do Soils Perform? 1.2 How Do Soils Support Plant Growth? 1.3 How Do Soils Regulate Water Supplies? 1.4 How Do Soils Recycle Raw Materials? 1.5 How Do Soils Modify the Atmosphere? 1.6 What Lives in the Soil Habitat? 1.7 Soil as an Engineering Medium 1.8 The Pedosphere and the Critical Zone? 1.9 Soils as Natural Bodies 1.10 The Soil Profile and Its Layers (Horizons) 1.11 Topsoil and Subsoil 1.12 Soil Interface of Air, Minerals, Water, and Life 1.13 What are the Mineral (Inorganic) Constituents of Soils? 1.14 The Nature of Soil Organic Matter 1.15 Soil WaterDynamic and Complex 1.16 Soil Air: A Changing Mixture of Gases 1.17 How Do Soil Components Interact to Supply Nutrients to Plants? 1.18 How Do Plant Roots Obtain Nutrients? 1.19 Soil Health, Degradation, and Resilience 1.20 Conclusion 2 Formation of Soils from Parent Materials 2.1 Weathering of Rocks and Minerals 2.2 What Environmental Factors Influence Soil Formation? 2.3 Parent Materials 2.4 How Does Climate Affect Soil Formation? 2.5 How Do Living Organisms (Including People) Affect Soil Formation? 2.6 How Does Topography Affect Soil Formation?
4 2.7 How Does Time Affect Soil Formation? 2.8 Four Basic Processes of Soil Formation 2.9 The Soil Profile 2.10 Urban Soils 2.11 Conclusion 3 Soil Classification 3.1 Concept of Individual Soils 3.2 Soil Taxonomy: A Comprehensive Classification System 3.3 Categories and Nomenclature of Soil Taxonomy 3.4 Soil Orders 3.5 Entisols (Recent: Little If Any Profile Development) 3.6 Inceptisols (Few Diagnostic Features: Inception of B Horizon) 3.7 Andisols (Volcanic Ash Soils) 3.8 Gelisols (Permafrost and Frost Churning) 3.9 Histosols (Organic Soils Without Permafrost) 3.10 Aridisols (Dry Soils) 3.11 Vertisols (Dark, Swelling, and Cracking Clays) 3.12 Mollisols (Dark, Soft Soils of Grasslands) 3.13 Alfisols (Argillic or Natric Horizon, Moderately Leached) 3.14 Ultisols (Argillic Horizon, Highly Leached) 3.15 Spodosols (Acid, Sandy, Forest Soils, Highly Leached) 3.16 Oxisols (Oxic Horizon, Highly Weathered) 3.17 Lower-Level Categories in Soil Taxonomy 3.18 Conclusion 4 Soil Architecture and Physical Properties 4.1 Soil Color 4.2 Soil Texture (Size Distribution of Soil Particles) 4.3 Soil Textural Classes 4.4 Structure of Mineral Soils 4.5 Formation and Stabilization of Soil Aggregates 4.6 Tillage and Structural Management of Soils 4.7 Soil Density 4.8 Pore Space of Mineral Soils
5 4.9 Soil Properties Relevant to Engineering Uses 4.10 Conclusion 5 Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior 5.1 Structure and Related Properties of Water 5.2 Capillary Fundamentals and Soil Water 5.3 Soil Water Energy Concepts 5.4 Soil Water Content and Soil Water Potential 5.5 The Flow of Liquid Water in Soil 5.6 Infiltration and Percolation 5.7 Water Vapor Movement in Soils 5.8 Qualitative Description of Soil Wetness 5.9 Factors Affecting Amount of Plant-Available Soil Water 5.10 Mechanisms by Which Plants are Supplied with Water 5.11 Conclusion 6 Soil and the Hydrologic Cycle 6.1 The Global Hydrologic Cycle 6.2 Fate of Incoming Water 6.3 The SoilPlantAtmosphere Continuum (SPAC) 6.4 Control of ET 6.5 Liquid Losses of Water from the Soil 6.6 Percolation and Groundwater 6.7 Enhancing Soil Drainage 6.8 Septic Tank Drain Fields 6.9 Irrigation Principles and Practices 6.10 Conclusion 7 Soil Aeration and Temperature 7.1 Soil AerationThe Process 7.2 Means of Characterizing Soil Aeration 7.3 OxidationReduction (Redox) Potential 7.4 Factors Affecting Soil Aeration and Eh 7.5 Ecological Effects of Soil Aeration
6 7.6 Soil Aeration in Urban Landscapes 7.7 Wetlands and Their Poorly Aerated Soils 7.8 Processes Affected by Soil Temperature 7.9 Absorption and Loss of Solar Energy 7.10 Thermal Properties of Soils 7.11 Soil Temperature Control 7.12 Conclusion 8 The Colloidal Fraction: Seat of Soil Chemical and Physical Activity 8.1 General Properties and Types of Soil Colloids 8.2 Fundamentals of Layer Silicate Clay Structure 8.3 Mineralogical Organization of Silicate Clays 8.4 Structural Characteristics of Nonsilicate Colloids 8.5 Genesis and Geographic Distribution of Soil Colloids 8.6 Sources of Charges on Soil Colloids 8.7 Adsorption of Cations and Anions 8.8 Cation Exchange Reactions 8.9 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 8.10 Exchangeable Cations in Field Soils 8.11 Anion Exchange 8.12 Sorption of Pesticides and Groundwater Contamination 8.13 Binding of Biomolecules to Clay and Humus 8.14 Conclusion 9 Soil Acidity 9.1 What Processes Cause Soil Acidification? 9.2 Role of Aluminum in Soil Acidity 9.3 Pools of Soil Acidity 9.4 Buffering of ph in Soils 9.5 How Can We Measure Soil ph? 9.6 Human-Influenced Soil Acidification 9.7 Biological Effects of Soil ph 9.8 Raising Soil ph by Liming 9.9 Alternative Ways to Ameliorate the Ill Effects of Soil Acidity 9.10 Lowering Soil ph
7 9.11 Conclusion 10 Soils of Dry Regions: Alkalinity, Salinity, and Sodicity 10.1 Characteristics and Problems of Dry Region Soils 10.2 Causes of High Soil ph (Alkalinity) 10.3 Development of Salt-Affected Soils 10.4 Measuring Salinity and Sodicity 10.5 Classes of Salt-Affected Soils 10.6 Physical Degradation of Soil by Sodic Chemical Conditions 10.7 Biological Impacts of Salt-Affected Soils 10.8 Water-Quality Considerations for Irrigation 10.9 Reclamation of Saline Soils Reclamation of SalineSodic and Sodic Soils Management of Reclaimed Soils Conclusion 11 Organisms and Ecology of the Soil 11.1 The Diversity of Organisms in the Soil 11.2 Organisms in Action 11.3 Abundance, Biomass, and Metabolic Activity 11.4 Earthworms 11.5 Ants and Termites 11.6 Soil Microanimals 11.7 Plant Roots 11.8 Soil Algae 11.9 Soil Fungi Soil Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea Conditions Affecting the Growth and Activity of Soil Microorganisms Beneficial Effects of Soil Organisms on Plant Communities Soil Organisms and Plant Damage Ecological Relationships among Soil Organisms Conclusion 12 Soil Organic Matter
8 12.1 The Global Carbon Cycle 12.2 Organic Decomposition in Soils 12.3 Factors Controlling Rates of Residue Decomposition and Mineralization 12.4 Genesis and Nature of Soil Organic Matter and Humus 12.5 Influences of Organic Matter on Plant Growth and Soil Function 12.6 Amounts and Quality of Organic Matter in Soils 12.7 Carbon Balance in the SoilPlantAtmosphere System 12.8 Environmental Factors Influencing Soil Organic Carbon Levels 12.9 Soil Organic Matter Management Soils and Climate Change Composts and Composting Conclusion 13 Nitrogen and Sulfur Economy of Soils 13.1 Influence of Nitrogen on Plant Growth and Development 13.2 Distribution of Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle 13.3 Immobilization and Mineralization 13.4 Dissolved Organic Nitrogen 13.5 Ammonium Fixation by Clay Minerals 13.6 Ammonia Volatilization 13.7 Nitrification 13.8 Gaseous Losses by Denitrification and Anammox 13.9 Biological Nitrogen Fixation Symbiotic Fixation with Legumes Symbiotic Fixation with Nonlegumes Nonsymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen Deposition from the Atmosphere The Nitrate Leaching Problem Practical Management of Soil Nitrogen Importance of Sulfur Natural Sources of Sulfur The Sulfur Cycle Behavior of Sulfur Compounds in Soils Sulfur Oxidation and Reduction Sulfur Retention and Exchange Sulfur and Soil Fertility Maintenance
9 13.23 Conclusion 14 Soil Phosphorus and Potassium 14.1 Phosphorus in Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility 14.2 Effects of Phosphorus on Environmental Quality 14.3 The Phosphorus Cycle 14.4 Organic Phosphorus in Soils 14.5 Inorganic Phosphorus in Soils 14.6 Solubility of Inorganic Soil Phosphorus 14.7 Phosphorus-Fixation Capacity of Soils 14.8 Plant Strategies for Adequate Phosphorus Acquisition from Soils 14.9 Practical Phosphorus Management Potassium: Nature and Ecological Roles Potassium in Plant and Animal Nutrition The Potassium Cycle The Potassium Problem in Soil Fertility Forms and Availability of Potassium in Soils Factors Affecting Potassium Fixation in Soils Practical Aspects of Potassium Management Conclusion 15 Calcium, Magnesium, Silicon, and Trace Elements 15.1 Calcium as an Essential Nutrient 15.2 Magnesium as a Plant Nutrient 15.3 Silicon in SoilPlant Ecology 15.4 Deficiency Versus Toxicity 15.5 Micronutrient Roles in Plants 15.6 Sources of Micronutrients 15.7 Factors Influencing the Availability of the Trace Element Cations 15.8 Organic Compounds as Chelates 15.9 Factors Influencing the Availability of the Trace Element Anions Soil Management and Trace Element Needs Conclusion
10 16 Practical Nutrient Management 16.1 Goals of Nutrient Management 16.2 Nutrients as Pollutants 16.3 Natural Ecosystem Nutrient Cycles 16.4 Recycling Nutrients Through Animal Manures 16.5 Industrial and Municipal By-Products 16.6 Practical Utilization of Organic Nutrient Sources 16.7 Inorganic Commercial Fertilizers 16.8 Fertilizer Application Methods 16.9 Timing of Fertilizer Application Diagnostic Tools and Methods Soil Analysis Site-Index Approach to Phosphorus Management Some Advances and Challenges in Fertilizer Management Conclusion 17 Soil Erosion and Its Control 17.1 Significance of Soil Erosion and Land Degradation 17.2 On-Site and Off-Site impacts of Accelerated Soil Erosion 17.3 Mechanics of Water Erosion 17.4 Models to Predict the Extent of Water-Induced Erosion 17.5 Factors Affecting Interrill and Rill Erosion 17.6 Conservation Tillage 17.7 Vegetative Barriers 17.8 Control of Gully Erosion and Mass Wasting 17.9 Control of Accelerated Erosion on Range- and Forestland Erosion and Sediment Control on Construction Sites Wind Erosion: Importance and Factors Affecting It Predicting and Controlling Wind Erosion Tillage Erosion Land Capability Classification as a Guide to Conservation Progress in Soil Conservation Conclusion 18 Soils and Chemical Pollution
11 18.1 Toxic Organic Chemicals 18.2 Kinds of Organic Contaminants 18.3 Behavior of Organic Chemicals in Soil 18.4 Effects of Pesticides on Soil Organisms 18.5 Remediation of Soils Contaminated with Organic Chemicals 18.6 Soil Contamination with Toxic Inorganic Substances 18.7 Potential Hazards of Chemicals in Sewage Sludge 18.8 Prevention and Remediation of Inorganic Soil Contamination 18.9 Landfills Radionuclides in Soil Radon Gas from Soils Conclusion 19 Geographic Soils Information 19.1 Soil Spatial Variability in the Field 19.2 Techniques and Tools for Mapping Soils 19.3 Modern Technology for Soil Investigations 19.4 Remote Sensing in Soil Survey 19.5 Making a Soil Survey 19.6 Using Soil Surveys 19.7 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 19.8 Digital Soil Maps: Properties or Polygons? 19.9 GIS, GPS, and Precision Agriculture Conclusion 20 Prospects for Soil Health in the Anthropocene 20.1 The Concepts of Soil Health and Soil Quality 20.2 Soil Resistance and Resilience 20.3 Soils and Global Ecosystem Services 20.4 Using Plants to Improve Soil Health 20.5 Feeding the Human Population 20.6 Intensified Agriculturethe Green Revolution 20.7 Impacts of Vastly Increased Ratios of People to Land 20.8 Sustainable Agriculture in Developed Countries 20.9 Biochar: Hype or Hope for Soil Quality?
12 20.10 Organic Farming Systems Table of Contents Sustainable Agriculture Systems for Resource-Poor Farmers Conclusion Appendix AWorld Reference Base, Canadian, and Australian Soil Classification Systems Appendix BSI Units, Conversion Factors, Periodic Table of the Elements, and Plant Names Glossary of Soil Science Terms Index A B C D E F G H I J J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y
13 Z Table of Contents
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