The use of landscape in municipal policies A research towards the implementation of landscape as defined in the European Landscape Convention

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1 The use of landscape in municipal policies A research towards the implementation of landscape as defined in the European Landscape Convention Sharon Westerman - MSc thesis - October 2014

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3 The use of landscape in municipal policies A research towards the implementation of landscape as defined in the European Landscape Convention MSc thesis Land Use Planning Author: Sharon Westerman Student number: sharonwesterman91@hotmail.com Programme: MLP Specialisation: Spatial Planning Course: LUP (36 ECTS) Supervisor: Prof. Dr. A.J.J. Van der Valk 2 nd reviewer Dr. G.B.M Pedroli Wageningen University Land Use Planning Group Droevendaalsesteeg 3 A 6708 PB Wageningen The Netherlands Figure frontpage: Schippers, Wilco. (2014). Sunset at Koe in de Kost (Raalte). [Figure of a sunset in an agricultural landscape]. [online] Retrieved from: [Accessed 10 October 2014] i

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5 ABSTRACT Landscape is a concept which is used in policies in Europe, as well as in the Netherlands. In the Netherlands care for the landscape has unofficially been decentralised towards the provinces. How Dutch municipalities deal with landscape in their policies has not been researched yet. In order to find out how municipalities deal with landscape in their policies, four municipalities (located in the province of Overijssel) have been analysed by means of a checklist. This checklist is based upon literature considering landscape, landscape planning and management, landscape biography and landscape identity. In general landscape is used well and how landscape is handled can be related to the European Landscape Convention. In planning and managing the landscape, landscape identity has frequently been used. The landscape biography concept has not been used so often. If possible municipalities should make use of the landscape biography concept as well, since this concept provides opportunities to integrate past landscapes with the present and future landscape. Key words: landscape, landscape planning, landscape management, landscape biography, landscape identity, European Landscape Convention iii

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7 ACKNOWLEDMENTS My MSc thesis is finished! The result of eight months hard work is presented in this report. At the beginning of the process, I had no idea which topic would be interesting to deal with for such a long period. Arnold van der Valk, who supervised me during the whole process, suggested to do something with the European Landscape Convention. I never heard of it After talking about this convention and reading some literature about this topic, I got enthusiast about the topic and so I my thesis topic was set. At the beginning of the writing process, I struggled with the content that should be in the different chapters. Arnold suggested to read a book on how to design a research process and I could start writing according to scientific standards. I would like to thank Arnold van der Valk for his guidance at the beginning of the research process, attending me to the conference of CHeriScape (which has been a great source of inspiration) and providing me with very useful comments on my draft version. These comments really helped me to improve my thesis. Since, my research consists of four case study municipalities, I have arranged some interviews. I have interviewed the policy officers who are responsible for the landscape policy. I would like to thank these people for the time they arranged for me. Special thanks to Simon, I really appreciate it that you read my thesis and checked for Dutch grammar and strange words. Indeed, I meant stakeholders and not actors. Last but not least, I would like to thank my friends and family. Thank you for your supportive words, it really helped me to finish my thesis. v

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9 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT... iii ACKNOWLEDMENTS... v LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND BOES... xi ENGLISH DUTCH GLOSSARY... xiii SUMMARY... xv 1. INTRODUCTION Nature and landscape in the Netherlands a short history The European Landscape Convention Recent programmes dealing with landscape in the Netherlands The Dutch attitude towards the ELC Problem description and problem statement Case studies Dalfsen Raalte Zwolle Deventer Research objective, questions and relevance Chapter overview THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Landscape Perspectives upon the landscape Changing landscapes Landscape as a connecting concept Landscape planning and landscape management Difficulties in managing and planning the landscape Dynamic approaches towards landscape planning and management Landscape biography History of the landscape biography concept Landscape biography in the Netherlands Landscape biography in practical situations Landscape identity Perspectives upon identity Factors influencing the formation of identity vii

10 2.5 Concepts in relation to each other METHODS Scientific literature Policy documents Interviews EUROPEAN, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICIES AND LAWS European level National level Past national policies Current national policies Current national laws Future law on the environment Regional level Environmental vision Overijssel Catalogue Area Characteristics Natural layer Agricultural cultivated layer Urban landscape Lust and leisure landscape Concluding remarks about the Catalogue Area Characteristics Room for the Vecht Environmental regulation Overijssel Relations between the different levels NORMS, VALUES AND IDENTIY IN PLANNING AND MANAGING THE LANDSCAPE Norms and values The periurban landscape Adding economic value to the landscape Managing the landscape Remarks considering norms and values in landscape planning and management BIOGRAPHY OF THE LANDSCAPE IN PLANNING AND MANAGING THE LANDSCAPE Examples of regions in which landscape biography has been used actively Past, present and future landscapes in the landscape biography concept History matters Immortal landscapes viii

11 6.2.3 Participation Use of landscape biography on a local level LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT ON A LOCAL LEVEL AND ITS RELATION TO THE ELC Planning and managing the landscape in the case study municipalities Landscape development plan Spatial development strategy External appearance of buildings note Comparison between the different municipalities Landscape planning and management in Dutch municipal policies and their relation to the ELC Policy documents of the case study areas and their relation to the ELC Presence of the ELC in landscape planning and management on a local level DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Discussion Findings in relation to the problem statement Findings in relation to the concepts and theoretical framework Circumstances which might have affected the results Conclusion BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNE I Example of a checklist ANNE II Interview questions ix

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13 LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND BOES LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Timeline nature and landscape issues in the Netherlands... 2 Figure 2: Map of the province of Overijssel... 5 Figure 3: Map of the municipality of Dalfsen... 5 Figure 4: Map of the municipality of Raalte Figure 5: Map of the municipality of Zwolle... 6 Figure 6: Map of the municipality of Deventer... 7 Figure 7: Landscape identity circle Figure 8: Diverse concepts and their relation to each other Figure 9: Birds and Habitats directive Figure 10: National Ecological Network Figure 11: Heritage from the past, designated with a new destination Figure 12: Natural layer of the case study municipalities Figure 13: Agricultural cultivated layer of the case study municipalities Figure 14: Urban landscape of the case study municipalities Figure 15: Lust and leisure landscape of the case study municipalities Figure 16: The Vecht river in the municipalities of Zwolle and Dalfsen Figure 17: Relationship between norms, values and attitudes towards the landscape Figure 18: Areas where the PDL/BBO programme was executed Figure 19: Part of a young heath reclamation landscape located in Deventer...47 Figure 20: Landscape types of the municipality of Dalfsen...50 Figure 21: Polder of Mastenbroek...53 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Authors and their views upon landscape Table 2: Background information on the interviews Table 3: Policies and laws on European, national and regional level Table 4: Summary of the studied policy documents of the case study municipalities Table 5: Use of ELC principles in the diverse policy documents (based upon the checklists) LIST OF BOES Box 1: Landscape as a unifying concept in the rural landscapes of Denmark Box 2: Cooperation between diverse cultural heritage organisations in Nijmegen Box 3: Biography of the Amersfoortseweg Box 4: Beauty is in the eye of the beholder Box 5: Periurban areas in the municipality of Zwolle Box 6: Landscape biography of a young heath reclamation landscape in the municipality of Deventer Box 7: Different landscape types in Dalfsen Box 8: The polder of Mastenbroek in the external appearance of buildings note of the municipality of Zwolle xi

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15 ENGLISH DUTCH GLOSSARY English Birds and Habitats Directive Brook landscape Brook valleys Catalogue Area Characteristics Developing landscape with quality Environmental Act Environmental regulation Overijssel Environmental vision European Landscape Convention (ELC) External appearance of buildings note Former bogs Good physical living environment Habitat test Integration plan Key Planning Decision Landscape development plan Municipal environmental plan National Cultural Heritage Agency National Ecological Network National Landscape Nature Protection Act Nature Scenery Act National Spatial Strategy Old farms landscape Open fields landscape Order in Council Peat landscape Peat reclamation landscape Riverbank and back lands Room for the River Room for the Vecht Sand ridges and plains Society for the Protection of Natural Monuments Spatial development strategy Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space Spatial planning act Special Protection Area Young heath reclamation landscape Zoning plan Dutch Habitat- en Vogelrichtlijn Maten en flierenlandschap Beekdalen Catalogus Gebiedskenmerken Landschap Ontwikkelen met Kwaliteit Omgevingswet Omgevingsverordening Overijssel Omgevingsvisie Europese Landschapsconventie Welstandsnota Hoogveengebieden in cultuur gebracht Goede fysieke leefomgeving Habitattoets Inpassingsplan Planologische Kernbeslissing Landschapsontwikkelingsplan Gemeentelijk omgevingsplan Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed Ecologische Hoofdstructuur Nationaal Landschap Natuurbeschermingswet Natuurschoonwet Nota Ruimte Oude hoevenlandschap Essenlandschap Algemene Maatregel van Bestuur Veenkoloniaal landschap Laagveenontginningen Oeverwallen en komgronden Ruimte voor de Rivier Ruimte voor de Vecht Dekzandvlakte en ruggen Natuurmonumenten Structuurvisie Structuurvisie Infrastructuur en Ruimte (SVIR) Wet ruimtelijke ordening Speciale beschermingszone Jong heide- en broekontginningslandschap Bestemmingsplan xiii

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17 SUMMARY The topic of this research is landscape in municipal policies, hereby emphasis is laid upon the European Landscape Convention (ELC). In this convention both physical and social landscapes play a big role. The ELC does not only focus on outstanding landscapes, but on ordinary landscapes as well. In order to find out if landscape and the ELC play a role in municipal policies, the municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Deventer and Zwolle will be analysed. The municipal level has been chosen, since there has not been a research on the implementation of the ELC on a municipal level. Landscape is obviously a major concept in this research. However, other concepts like landscape planning and management, landscape biography and landscape identity (might) play a role in the planning and managing the municipal landscape. Landscape biography tells the story of past landscapes. Landscape identity is about the image of the landscape. This research consists of three different types of resources. First, scientific literature has been used to examine landscape and related concepts. These concepts formed the basis for the theoretical framework as described in chapter 2. Second, diverse policy documents of the municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Deventer and Zwolle are studied. In order to structure this study, a checklist has been created in order to find out whether the landscape concept is used on a municipal level. Third, interviews have been held with the policy officers of the case study municipalities. These interviews served to capture the process behind the establishment of the landscape policy and the current position of the landscape policy. The case study municipalities are not the only level that is taking care of landscape. On a higher level the province of Overijssel, the Netherlands and Europe can be distinguished. The provincial policies were often used by the case study municipalities. On a national level, policies became more global and were thus less used by the municipalities. The national laws are implemented in the municipal landscape policies. Municipalities know of the European policies and laws, but most of them are not directly visible in the landscape policies. Norms and values play a role when a person is giving value or an identity to the landscape. Due to different backgrounds and preferences, people with different backgrounds are likely to rate a landscape different. When managing and/or planning the landscape the norms and values of the inhabitants of the landscape should be taken in consideration. A difficult task, since people all think different about the landscape. Not only norms and values are important when planning and managing the landscape, history is also an important topic which should be considered. In a biography of the landscape, a landscape can be represented by different time periods and topics. The outcomes of this biography can be used in management or planning decisions that have to be taken. The case study municipalities are actively busy with landscape. In the policies landscape identity can be identified very easily. Landscape biography is not often used, as follows from the checklists (see the interviews and checklists report). Particularly, the landscape development plans of the case study municipalities can be linked with the ELC very well. The spatial development plans and the external appearance of buildings notes are not so connected to the ELC. It can be concluded that landscape matters to municipalities, although very few municipalities have been researched. xv

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19 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Nature and landscape in the Netherlands a short history In 1905 nature and landscape conservation officially started in the Netherlands, with the foundation of the Society for the Protection of Natural Monuments. Jac P. Thijsse took the initiative to prevent the Naardermeer from becoming a waste disposal site. This society bought the lake and the first natural monument of the society was born. Around the 1920s the landscape began to change, due to technological improvements and the need for jobs. Land consolidation processes took place and the heathlands were reclaimed. The heath landscape disappeared and land suitable for agricultural purposes was partitioned in its place (Janssen, 2009; Van der Windt, 1995). Foundation of Society for the Protection of natural monuments 1905 Heathland reclamation and land consilidation processes 1920s Dirk Hudig coordinated the first initiatives provinces had on landscape conservation. His ideas about landscape conservation were based on the British model of spatial planning. Not only Dirk Hudig was inspired by a foreign spatial planning system, Hendrik Cleyndert was inspired by the national park movement of North America. He argued the Netherlands should have a national plan in which landscape and nature hold a central position. These ideas were presented in Amsterdam, in 1924, during a conference on regional planning (Janssen, 2009). In the Netherlands nature and landscape conservation before World War II depended largely on private initiatives. The first years after World War II nature and landscape conservation held no priority. Rebuilding cities and the production of food had priority. Land consolidation was again used in order to increase the make more areas suitable for agricultural production. In the 1960s the value nature and landscape possess were acknowledged and in 1966 the ideas of Cleyndert were integrated in the Second Memorandum on Spatial Planning. Its successor (1974) emphasized the relation between nature, landscape and agriculture. Farmers could apply for a subsidy if they kept natural and/or cultural qualities intact. Furthermore, national landscape parks were introduced in the Third Memorandum on Spatial Planning. In the late 1970s the regional and local level got more authority, in order to protect the landscapes in a more efficient way. This was done in order to involve the local community in protecting the landscapes. Farmers felt the level of nature and landscape protection in these landscape parks was too high. In the 1980s national landscape parks were transformed in National Landscapes, with less rigid protection. In 1982 a shift in nature and landscape protection became visible. The government at that time was willing to implement nature and landscape in the national policies. However, the national landscape parks no longer existed (Janssen, 2009). Hudig and Cleyndert are inspired by foreign planning systems 1924 Private initiatives to protect nature and landscape 1900s till 1940 Rebuilding cities and emphasising food production 1945 till 1960 Nature and landscape are revalued 1960s 2 nd Memorandum on Spatial planning rd Memorandum on Spatial planning 1974 Nature and landscape in national policies, national landscape parks no longer exist

20 In the late 1990s cultural landscape conservation became again an issue. In 1999 the Belvedere memorandum was introduced, which stimulated spatial planners to include culture in their policies and plans. Landscapes should be conserved by allowing the landscape to change (Janssen, 2009). Around the same time a scientific approach towards cultural planning established. The Protecting and Developing the Dutch Archaeological-Historical Landscape programme (PDL/BBO programme) was carried out from 2000 to 2010 (Van der Valk, 2014). In 2005 the Netherlands signed the European Landscape Convention (Council of Europe, 2014a). This treaty is about landscape and by signing this treaty the Netherlands should fulfil the aims the Council of Europe sketched in the convention (Council of Europe, 2000a). In figure 1 a short summary of the Dutch nature and landscape conservation is listed. Belvedere memorandum 1999 tilll 2009 PDL/BBO programme 2000 till 2010 Signing the ELC 2005 Figure 1: Timeline nature and landscape issues in the Netherlands 1.2 The European Landscape Convention The European Landscape Convention (ELC) is a convention that is made up by the Council of Europe. Since 2000, European member states can sign and ratify this treaty. By signing and ratifying this treaty, the state s goal is to meet the aims of the ELC. The ELC s aims are protecting, managing and planning the landscape in a way that the landscape and its inhabitants are the main points of interest. In the convention landscape is defined as follows: an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors (Council of Europe, 2000a). The treaty is not only focussed on special landscapes, as described by the definition of landscape from the Council of Europe, but the treaty also focusses on the everyday landscapes as well (Council of Europe, 2000a). Nowadays, forty states have signed the ELC. Two states have not ratified the treaty yet (Iceland and Malta). The Netherlands signed and ratified the treaty in 2005 (Council of Europe, 2014a). In the ELC some measures are mentioned which the countries who ratified the treaty should fulfil. These measures should be taken by the Netherlands as well, since the Netherlands signed and ratified the ELC. The topics that are discussed in these measures are linked with the aims of the convention and the following topics: integrating landscape in a law or in multiple laws, awareness-raising, training and education, participation, taking care of the quality of the different landscapes and implementing the invented measures (Council of Europe, 2000a; Council of Europe, 2000b). As De Montis (2014) mentions the implementation of the ELC depends on the government system and its landscape planning traditions. The author states that planning systems across Europe differ from one country to another. A general planning system which is applicable on all European countries cannot be formulated. In the Netherlands a comprehensive planning system can be identified (Montis, 2014). In the Netherlands, three different levels of government can be distinguished, namely: the state, provinces and municipalities. There is a hierarchy between these levels. The state is the highest level of government and is able to create new laws or adjust existing ones. Provinces are the middle level and should follow the policies and laws of the state. Furthermore, the provinces need to keep an eye on the policies and zoning plans of the 2

21 municipalities. In case the municipality is not following the guidelines of the province, the province needs to point these municipalities to this case. Municipalities are the lowest level government. They need to meet the expectations of the state and the province in their policies and zoning plans (Kistenkas, 2010) Recent programmes dealing with landscape in the Netherlands In the Netherlands before the ELC was signed and ratified, landscape already played an important role. A policy in which landscapes are a central issue is the Belvedere programme. The Belvedere programme started in 1999 and ended in This programme started before the ELC was signed and ratified by the Netherlands. Its main goal was to integrate spatial planning and heritage conservation. Heritage in general, provides opportunities for leisure and tourism activities. An opportunity like this asks for the involvement of spatial planners (Janssen, Luiten, Renes & Rouwendal, 2014). The problem which the Belvedere programme tried to solve was the different attitudes towards landscapes. On one side the rigid protection of cultural heritage can be identified, while on the other side the landscape is changing constantly (Luiten, 2013). By the Belvedere programme cultural planning became more appreciated and used in the Netherlands (Janssen et al., 2014). Another programme which has a focus on landscape too, is the Protecting and Developing the Dutch Archaeological-Historical Landscape programme (PDL/BBO programme). As well as the Belvedere policy, the PDL/BBO programme is considered with the thought: conservation through development. In the PDL/BBO programme archaeologists, spatial planners and historical geographers worked on their own area of expertise and in cooperation with other scientific disciplines or experts. In this programme people were working together in order to make invisible landscapes visible again. Historic elements play a central role in doing this. Whereas the Belvedere policy had a more practical perspective, the PDL/BBO programme had a more scientific perspective (Van der Valk, 2010) The Dutch attitude towards the ELC In 2005 after the Netherlands signed the ELC the Landscape manifesto was created. By this manifest NGO s of different backgrounds agreed to pay, for a minimum of three years, special attention to the Dutch landscape. The manifest has been written in line with the ELC. Considering the Belvedere policy and the Landscape manifesto the Netherlands succeeded quite well in complying with the expectations from the Council of Europe. In 2008 another agreement was made between the government, provinces, municipalities and organizations which have influence on the landscape. Again an agreement was made for three years. In 2011 no new manifest or agreement was made. On a national level the attention the landscape has diminished. Due to changes in policies and the creation of new policies, more is expected from provinces and municipalities. How and if the provinces and municipalities will cope with the care for the landscape depends on the provinces and municipalities themselves. Although the Netherlands has no national policy anymore, the Netherlands still has to meet the criteria of the ELC (Dessing & Pedroli, 2013). In December 2013, the government advisor for the landscape, has given advice about implementing the ELC in the current Dutch planning system. Luiten (2013) states that the decision of the state to quit the active landscape policy does not have to mean that the Netherlands does not meet the criteria of the ELC anymore. Since there is no official decentralisation of taking care for the 3

22 landscape, Luiten (2013) suggests that the Netherlands may only meet the criteria of the ELC depending on the attitude and policies of the provinces (Luiten, 2013). The government quit the national policy without consulting the provinces about the future of the landscape policy (Dessing & Pedroli, 2013). Although, a national policy does not exist anymore, most provinces give some directions to landscape policy (Luiten, 2013). 1.3 Problem description and problem statement From the previous paragraphs it can be argued that the Netherlands has carried out a quite efficient policy on the landscape. Since two major programmes, the Belvedere programme and the PDL/BBO programme, have been executed and recently ended. These programmes have had an impact on the appearance of the Dutch landscape and the cooperation between different stakeholders. Whereas both programmes have ended and the state has no nationwide policy anymore, it is unclear if the Netherlands still meets the ELC in the future. Luiten (2013) argued that most provinces have said something about the landscape in their spatial development strategy (Luiten, 2013). However, how municipalities deal with the landscape and therefore the ambitions of the ELC is still unclear. Whereas the Dutch policy for the landscape is unofficially decentralised, the attitude and policies of municipalities should be taken in consideration as well. The municipal level and the implementation of the ELC at this level have not been researched yet. Since, the responsibility of municipalities became bigger by this informal decentralisation it is important to research the municipal level as well. Not only from a scientific perspective, but also from a societal perspective. When people will change something in their direct environment, the municipality is the first governmental level which they have to deal with. At the moment there is too little knowledge about the way Dutch municipalities handle landscape in their planning and management practices. Whereas the local level has become more important in planning and managing the landscape it is important to conduct a research towards this topic. 1.4 Case studies This research will focus on four Dutch municipalities, all located within the same province. In the province of Overijssel, the municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Zwolle and Deventer are selected as case study areas. In figure 2 the location of the province and the municipalities can be viewed. The municipalities of Dalfsen and Raalte can be considered as rural municipalities. The municipalities of Zwolle and Deventer can be considered urban (regarding to Dutch standards). 4

23 Figure 2: Map of the province of Overijssel (Imergis, 2013) Dalfsen The municipality of Dalfsen is a rural municipality, located in the Vechtdal region. The municipality can be reviewed in figure 3. There are about 27,000 inhabitants who live in this municipality. The landscape of the municipality is highly valuated by its inhabitants. Diverse landscapes can be identified. Along the river Vecht, near Dalfsen, the river landscape can be identified, while the young heath reclamation landscapes can be found near Nieuwleusen, see figure 3 (BMC Advies en Management, 2009). Figure 3: Map of the municipality of Dalfsen (Imergis, 2013) 5

24 1.4.2 Raalte The municipality of Raalte is located in the region Salland and is composed of nine villages and the outskirts of these villages. There are about 37,000 inhabitants who live in this municipality. Raalte is the biggest village, 19,000 inhabitants live in this settlement, while the smallest village (Lierderholthuis) only has about 400 inhabitants. The villages are all characterised by their own identity. In the outskirts of the municipality the rural character is clearly visible. In the rural area, around Heino, see figure 4, many estates can be noticed. Cultural historical elements of the past are still clearly visible around Heino (Boersma, Ruyssenaars, Tap and Figure 4: Map of the municipality of Raalte (Imergis, 2013) Witberg, 2012) Zwolle The municipality of Zwolle is located in the IJsseldelta region. About 113,000 people live in the city of Zwolle, which is a relatively young city. This can be related to the higher education facilities which are located in the city. National Landscape IJsseldelta is partially located in the municipality of Zwolle. This National Landscape consists of the polder of Mastenbroek (see figure 5). It is one of the key qualities of the outskirts of Zwolle. The historic inner city is one of the qualities of the city. The history of the Hanze cities can still be noticed while walking around the city (Gemeente Zwolle, 2008). Figure 5: Map of the municipality of Zwolle (Imergis, 2013) 6

25 1.4.4 Deventer Figure 6: Map of the municipality of Deventer (Imergis, 2013) The municipality of Deventer is another former Hanze city and the historical inner city of Deventer is one of the main qualities as well. The city of Deventer is located near the river IJssel, see figure 6, which holds a central position in the city landscape. The municipality of Deventer is located in the region Salland. About 90,000 people live in Deventer, most of the inhabitants live in the city. In the outskirts, many estates can be recognized which characterize the landscape (Gemeente Deventer, 2004). 1.5 Research objective, questions and relevance This research aims at providing an insight in the way Dutch municipalities deal with landscape in their policies. The research consists of a case study towards Dalfsen, Raalte, Zwolle and Deventer. By identifying the way of planning and managing the landscape in these municipalities, it becomes possible to state whether these municipalities meet the requirements as stated by the Council of Europe. Whereas, different states and Dutch provinces have been studied already, this research aims at the way municipalities deal with landscape. In this way a complete picture of dealing with landscape in the Netherlands can be created and it can therefore be argued to which extent the Netherlands and in special the case study municipalities meet the requirements of the ELC. In this research the relationship between landscape and the manner Dutch municipalities cope with the concept landscape will be studied. In order to reach the objective of this research the following main question will be answered: How do municipalities in Overijssel cope with landscape planning and landscape management in their policies and to what extent can this be related to the aims the Council of Europe sketched in the European Landscape Convention? Landscape planning, landscape management and the ELC and its aims are the central elements in the main question. Since, these elements are important when it comes to answering the main question the following sub questions have to be answered first: 7

26 What guidelines and rules do the European Union, the Dutch government and the province of Overijssel give towards municipalities about landscape planning and landscape management? o This question deals with policies and laws from higher level governments. Since, higher level governments might have an influence on the way municipalities plan and manage the landscape. When dealing with landscape planning and landscape management on a local level, which norms and values are at stake and from who? o Norms and values that come along during a local planning or management issue are the point of interest of this question. What role does the biography of landscape play in planning and managing the landscape on a local level? o This question aims at clarifying the role the landscape biography concept plays in planning and management issues considering landscape. How are the municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Zwolle and Deventer handling landscape planning and landscape management in their policies? o Several policies of the case study municipalities are assessed on the presence of landscape, planning and management, identity and biography of landscape. Once all the sub questions are answered it becomes possible to give an answer to the main question. This research is scientifically relevant, since it focusses on landscape on a local level in relation to the ELC. Towards the ELC and its implementation, many different researches have been conducted. However, at Dutch local level there has not yet been a research. By focussing on four case study municipalities an in-depth research is structured and conducted. The municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Zwolle and Deventer will be thoroughly explored for the presence of landscape in their policies. Furthermore, this research is relevant to society. Since it shows the Dutch municipal attitude towards landscape, again related to the ELC. By completing this research a coherent story can be told on dealing with landscape in relation to the ELC, which is based on several case studies. 1.6 Chapter overview This research consists of nine different chapters. Chapter one has provided an introduction to the ELC, the problem is stated, the case study areas are introduced, the research objective and questions are mentioned and the scientific and societal relevance are stated. The introduction is followed by the theoretical framework. In chapter two the relevant concepts are discussed after which the relations between the concepts are clarified. Chapter three continues with the methods. In this chapter it is described how the research has been carried out. A distinction in different resources can be identified. For every resource type, the way of collecting and analysing the data is discussed. In chapter four policies and laws of higher level governments are discussed, relations with the local level are made as well. In chapter five the norms and values hold a central place, it is discussed in relation to the local level as well. Chapter six is dealing with the landscape biography concept and to what extent this concept can be identified within the local policies. Chapter seven is dealing with landscape planning and management in the local policies. Furthermore, the relation to the aims and definitions of the ELC are clarified. Chapter eight discusses the findings reported in the chapters four until seven and eventually ends with the conclusion of the research. The last chapter consists of the bibliography in which the used resources are mentioned. 8

27 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Landscape In this research the main concept is landscape. In the ELC landscape is defined as: an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors (Council of Europe, 2000a). In scientific literature different opinions and definitions of the landscape concept exist. In this research the definition of the ELC is the main guiding principle. However, other opinions and definitions will be discussed as well, in order to get a better understanding of the definition used in the ELC Perspectives upon the landscape Printsmann, Kõivupuu and Palang (2011) distinguish two different typologies of landscape. They divided landscape in the ideational landscape and the physical landscape. The ideational landscape deals with the imaginative and emotional feelings towards landscape. This type of landscape is represented in words, pictures and feelings people have towards places. In its essence, the imaginative landscape is more about the social landscape. On the other hand the physical landscape can be identified. The physical landscape is related to the different elements that make up the landscape (Printsmann et al., 2011). Palang, Spek and Stenseke (2011) state three different perspectives from which the landscape should be assessed in order to understand the landscape. These are the: physical landscape, social landscape and mindscape. Again the physical landscape deals with the physical elements of the landscape. Research towards the physical landscape is mainly done from the natural sciences. The social landscape deals with the social world, which is related to the physical world. This perspective is mainly researched by the social sciences. Both the physical and the social landscape show similarities with the different landscapes of Printsmann et al., (2011). However, Palang et al., (2011) go a step further and mention a third perspective, the mindscape. Mindscape again is related to the landscape. Individual perception of the landscape is highly important when dealing with mindscape. Since, this perspective deals more with the individual, mainly environmental psychologists study this perspective towards landscape. Palang, et al. (2011) distinguish three different perspectives from which a landscape can be analysed. According to Jacobs (2006) it is common to analyse phenomena from three different perspectives. Jacobs (2006) does the same for landscape. In his triple landscape ontology he distinguishes three different modes of landscape, these are: matterscape, powerscape and mindscape. Matterscape deals with landscape in an objective manner. The physical landscape is the main issue in this mode. By assessing the facts provided by the landscape, an objective picture of the landscape can be made. It can be compared with the physical landscape of Palang et al. (2011) and Printsmann et al. (2011). The powerscape deals with the way people act and behave in the landscape. Social elements in relation to the landscape are the most important in this way of assessing the landscape. This type of landscape research can be compared with the social landscape of Palang et al. (2011). Mindscape is about the way people perceive and experience the landscape. Feelings of individuals or groups are the focus point in this landscape typology. It can be compared with the ideational landscape of Printsmann et al. (2011) and the mindscape of Palang et al. (2011). Jacobs (2006) mentions that the different landscape modes provide a good base for understanding the landscape. Although landscape is a complex concept, which cannot be simply divided into three different perspectives. 9

28 Table 1: Authors and their views upon landscape Jacobs (2006) Palang et al. (2011) Printsmann et al. (2011) Physical Matterscape Physical landscape Physical landscape Social Powerscape Social landscape - Personal Mindscape Mindscape Ideational landscape In Table 1 the different dimensions and formulations of landscape are listed. It appears that Jacobs (2006) and Palang et al. (2011) view landscape from the threefold landscape ontology as mentioned by Jacobs (2006). Printsmann et al. (2011) distinguishes two different dimensions. The social landscape is not mentioned by these authors. Although, it can be argued that the personal landscape is a form of a social landscape as well Changing landscapes Considering landscape not only different perspectives should be taken in consideration. As Antrop (2005) mentions it is not possible to preserve past landscapes. As he states in his article: Landscapes always change because they are the expression of the dynamic interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment (Antrop, 2005, page 22). This quote clearly shows landscapes are changing. From a cultural heritage perspective, Vervloet (2007) states the same. He claims every element in the landscape (e.g. buildings, churches) is due to development affected by change, which results in a different landscape. So it is almost impossible to preserve landscapes of the past. Landscapes are complex, in order to understand the landscape the history of the landscape should be understood. This history matters, because landscapes consist of elements of different time periods (Vervloet, 2007). According to Antrop (2005) there are four main driving forces that result in changing landscapes, these are: accessibility, urbanization, globalization and calamities. First, accessibility, if a landscape is not accessible for people, it can be called a natural landscape. If such a landscape becomes accessible for people, it changes rapidly. Transportation can be linked to the accessibility of a place, because if the transportation improves, the accessibility is also likely to improve. Second, urbanization plays a role in changing landscapes as well. When more people leave the countryside and live in cities, the landscape changes. This development affects villages as well as cities and therefore results in a different landscape. Third, globalization processes which have an impact on the world might also have an impact on the local level. These global processes might affect the local politics and can result in a changing landscape. Fourth, calamities have an impact on the landscape as well. After a calamity, politics will make sure such a disaster will not happen again (or reduce the impact). In order to let people feel safe again, changes in the landscape might be necessary (Antrop, 2005) Landscape as a connecting concept Tress and Tress (2001) acknowledge the fact that landscape is a popular research object in many different research disciplines. All disciplines make use of the term landscape and relating concepts in diverse ways. Tress and Tress (2001) argue that landscape from different (scientific) perspectives are important. They argue that natural and social sciences matter to landscape as well as landscape architecture and arts. Transdisciplinary researchers are needed in order to bridge the gap between scientific research and society. Nowadays, collaboration between different scientific and social 10

29 disciplines is needed, since social and landscape issues have become more complicated. In order to make use of landscape as a unifying concept, five different dimensions in the landscape are important. These are: landscape as a spatial entity, landscape as a mental entity, landscape as a temporal dimension, landscape as a nexus of nature and culture and landscape as a complex system (Tress & Tress, 2001, page 147). These different dimensions together make up a landscape. People interact with the landscape, which makes it even more difficult to deal with landscape as a unifying concept. When using transdisciplinary landscape research, it is important to include personal relationships with the landscape. In this way the outcomes of the research can be used in practical situations (Tress & Tress, 2001). Box 1: Landscape as a unifying concept in the rural landscapes of Denmark Agricultural activities have a huge impact on the landscape. In Denmark landscape as a unifying concept is used to find out whether farms are willing to produce in a more organic way. In order to find out how farmers were thinking about organic farming, the different landscape dimensions were used as a starting point. As an example, the spatial and mental dimensions are closely related, because the soils of the landscape are needed to let the farmer grow his crops. If this is done in a regular or organic way has an impact on the landscape. The research found out that regular farmers are not willing to shift to organic production. On the other side, new organic farmers are entering the Danish agriculture. These people were not represented in the agricultural business before, so a new group of farmers is represented in the agricultural sector. As this example shows, the Danish agricultural farmers are quite diverse and so a diverse agricultural landscape can be identified in Denmark (Tress and Tress, 2001). In line with the reasoning of Tress and Tress (2001), Elerie and Spek (2010) suggest to make use of the landscape as a unifying concept. Since people feel attached to places where they live, work and recreate, everybody can imagine something when hearing the word landscape. Therefore, landscape is a suitable concept to integrate research from different scientific disciplines or integrate scientific and practical knowledge. However, there is not one ultimate definition of landscape, various interpretations of the concept can be identified. When combining different scientific disciplines or types of knowledge with each other, these different definitions of landscape should be taken into account as well. The ELC provides a good basis to make use of landscape as a unifying concept (Elerie & Spek, 2010). In the ELC landscape is treated in relation to policies, quality objectives, protection, management and planning (Council of Europe, 2000a). By emphasizing these different perspectives on landscape a coherent and full understanding of the concept landscape can be formulated. This allows people with different backgrounds (not necessarily professional backgrounds) to handle, take care off and deal with the landscape they live in (Council of Europe, 2000a; Council of Europe, 2000b). Planning and managing the landscape will be the main point of interest in this research. Especially, how municipalities deal with the physical landscape they have to govern. The physical landscape will be used to learn more about the way municipalities take care of the landscape. It can be argued that landscape can be discussed, defined and used in many different ways. These different perspectives on the landscape, all provide different information on the landscape. Taking these perspectives together provides a coherent story of the landscape. Whereas the focus in this 11

30 research lies mainly on the way municipalities deal with the landscape in their policies, the main point of interest is the physical landscape. From this perspective, the landscape will be assessed in an objective way (Jacobs, 2006). As a second perspective the social landscape will be used. After all, society holds a central position in the ELC (Council of Europe, 2000a). The mindscape perspective will not be used in this research, since the feelings of individual persons toward landscape will not be studied. 2.2 Landscape planning and landscape management From the previous paragraph it can be deduced that both Antrop (2005) and Vervloet (2007) have a positive attitude towards changing landscapes. How to manage these changing landscapes and cope with these changes in a sufficient way is mentioned by these authors as well Difficulties in managing and planning the landscape Antrop (2005) states that landscapes are difficult to manage. He ascribes this not only to the dynamic relation between culture and nature. Landscapes consist of many pieces of land all owned by different people. Whereas these pieces of land are private, landscape is perceived as something common. Land use planning is important when managing the landscape. Since, land use changes are directly linked with land use planning. Dealing with this difficult relation is something that land use planners should do. A policy document is a common way to set some guidelines and thus manage the changing landscape. In order to preserve landscapes, the functions of the landscape should be controlled. Changes required from citizens should also be taken into account. Citizens ask for policies in order to know what their rights are. Citizens not only request policies, participation is important as well. During the past fifty years cultural heritage management became less a job of the elite. People of different (cultural) backgrounds started to cooperate in order to manage the landscape in which they live (Vervloet, 2007). Box 2: Cooperation between diverse cultural heritage organisations in Nijmegen In Nijmegen many different institutions and volunteers are actively involved with cultural heritage. In 2005, about 25 organisations decided to join the strengths of the separate organisations and so the Cultuurhistorisch Platform Rijk van Nijmegen (CPRN) was founded. The CPRN consists of a diversity of members and is focussed on sharing knowledge, cooperation between organisations and taking care of the culture history of Nijmegen. In 2007, the platform advised the municipality of Nijmegen to take care of the cultural heritage of the city based on three different time periods, namely: the Roman past, the Middle Ages and Industrial heritage. If possible activities concerning the cultural heritage should be combined with the renovation or preservation of the cultural heritage. Connecting activities to the cultural heritage of the city, will make the inhabitants more aware of the past city landscapes (CPRN, 2014). When managing the landscape Antrop (2006) points towards three main challenges policymakers, researchers and managers should deal with when planning, researching or managing the landscape. The first challenge deals with monitoring. In order to anticipate changing landscapes, monitoring these changes provides an insight in previous changes. The second challenge he identifies deals with the sustainability and multifunctional use of the landscape. The last challenge has to do with new forms of dealing with the landscape (Antrop, 2006). Nowadays, people handle and think differently 12

31 about the landscape, which results in other elements that should be available in the landscape. It is up to planners, researchers and managers to deal with this changing attitude and lead the changing landscape in the right direction. These challenges might be complex to deal with, but dealing with them will lead to a better understanding and use of the landscape Dynamic approaches towards landscape planning and management Landscapes change constantly, therefore it is important to take note of landscape planning and landscape management. These two concepts can be used to analyse and describe the current landscape and attitude towards landscape. In this research landscape planning and landscape management as used in the ELC will be the main point of interest. The critical notes of Antrop (2005; 2006) and Vervloet (2007) have made it clear that planning and managing the landscape is dynamic, since landscapes are changing constantly. When planning and managing, the social landscape should be integrated as well, since people are the main users of the landscape. Quality of the landscape is important to consider as well. However, it is quite difficult to define a high or low qualitative landscape. Central to the quality of landscapes are people. People rate landscapes differently because of their different backgrounds and interests. When planning and managing the landscape it is therefore important to consider the wishes of the inhabitants of the landscape (Jacobs, 2006). In the ELC landscape planning and landscape management are mentioned as well. In the ELC landscape planning is defined as: strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscapes (Council of Europe, 2000a). It is up to the countries who signed and ratified the treaty, to set guidelines for planning the landscape. Thereby, it is important to pay attention towards future developments and allow interested people and governments to participate or react on the policy. In order to reach the goal of the ELC, policies are an important measure. It is important, not only on national level to keep the ELC and the states guidelines for landscapes in mind, because the regional and local levels landscapes are important as well. By stating landscape explicitly in a policy, it becomes easier to protect, plan and manage the landscape (Council of Europe, 2000b). Every landscape has its own value, therefore it is necessary to plan and manage landscapes carefully. Landscape management is defined as: action, from a perspective of sustainable development, to ensure the regular upkeep of a landscape, so as to guide and harmonise changes which are brought about by social, economic and environmental processes (Council of Europe, 2000a). When dealing with landscape management, again it is important to let citizens participate in managing the landscape. In the policy, guidelines for managing different landscapes are given. When dealing with landscape management it is important to handle a dynamic approach and search for ways to improve the current landscape quality (Council of Europe, 2000b). In this research, the definitions of the ELC will be the guiding principle. Whereas people and their relation to the landscape are important, when dealing with landscape planning and management, participation will be kept in mind as well. Planning and management ask for integration between policymakers and layman. Quality of the landscape, sustainability and multifunctional use of land are important factors to keep in mind when assessing the different policy documents. 13

32 2.3 Landscape biography History of the landscape biography concept Related to the definition of the ELC and the concept landscape, landscape biography is another important concept. Landscape biography was first introduced by Samuels (1979). He argues that people create the landscape. How a landscape biography looks, depends on the people who inhabit the landscape. In a landscape biography it is not only about the current landscape, past landscapes and events are important as well, because these landscapes contribute towards shaping a landscape biography (Samuels, 1979). Another early concept which had an impact on the formation of landscape biography is the cultural biography of objects. Kopytoff (1986) states that objects have a biography, just like people. How the biography of an object looks, depends on the point of view with which people examine the object. By looking at biographies of people and objects, an understanding of the social system and its collective understandings can be noted (Kopytoff, 1986). In the Netherlands, landscape biography is introduced by Jan Kolen (Baas, Groenewoudt and Raap, 2011; Elerie & Spek, 2010). On the one hand the material landscape is identified, while on the other hand the world of ideas, meanings, representations and memories given to the landscape can be distinguished (Kolen, 1993 in Elerie & Spek, 2010). This interpretation of landscape biography provides an opportunity to deal with the struggle between the material landscape and personal feelings towards landscape. The concept can be used as an inspiration source, for many different stakeholders. It can be a useful concept from a scientific perspective, a professional perspective or from the residents perspective. Since, different types of knowledge will be combined as well as different backgrounds. The use of language should be adapted to the stakeholders involved (Elerie & Spek, 2010) Landscape biography in the Netherlands Kolen and Witte (2006) argue that landscape biography is a useful instrument when dealing with regional identities and spatial planning. The different dimensions of the landscape should be made explicit, since not only one dimension of the physical landscape matters. In order to make a solid and thorough biography of the landscape, multiple dimensions and layers of the landscape should be made explicit. By using different layers a right balance between material and interpretive can be made (Kolen & Witte, 2006). The landscape biography concept makes it possible to view, assess and describe the landscape in different ways. Landscape will not only be assessed in a physical way, also the social and mental reality need to be considered. Since landscape biography takes in consideration multiple perspectives on the landscape, it can sometimes be difficult to implement the landscape biography concept in a satisfying way (Baas et al., 2011). Elerie and Spek (2010) consider landscape biography as an inspiring concept to deal with different stakeholders. In projects where layman, policymakers and organizations have to deal with each other, landscape biography can be used to share different types of knowledge in a way that all participants understand (Elerie & Spek, 2010). Also Baas et al. (2011) see opportunities in making use of the landscape biography concept, by combining landscape history with landscape architecture or spatial planning (Baas et al., 2011). 14

33 Palang et al. (2011) mention in their article that landscape biography is a concept that can be very useful in the Dutch spatial planning system. In the Netherlands it has become a popular instrument to describe, analyse and explain the development of the landscape. The landscape should be explained from different views, these are: the physical elements, behaviour and cultural values. These elements are all interrelated and together they represent the biography of landscape. Central in the landscape biography approach is the idea that landscapes change. Landscapes change, because the way people handle the landscape depends on the time. The past landscapes have not gone, they can still be discovered and seen in the current landscape (Reuselaars & Van der Valk, 2009). A programme in which landscape biography had a central role is the PDL/BBO programme. According to Hidding, Kolen and Spek (2001) there are several aspects that need to be considered when dealing with the biography of places. The concept is applicable in a broad way. Every community, village or city has its own history and thus different landscapes and biographies exist. People have positive and negative feelings towards places in their environment, mostly due to events that happened in history, which play a role in the formation of a landscape biography. When creating a landscape biography, the stories of the (previous) inhabitants are important. Central in the biography of landscape concept is the idea that: landscape is a continuous phenomenon, every generation adds their own elements to the landscape. This concept provides opportunities to integrate the past, present and future landscape. Making use of a landscape biography might provide relics of the past with another function in the future (Hidding et al., 2001). Based on the PDL/BBO programme, Vervloet, van Beek and Keunen (2010) distinguish three different viewpoints from which the biography of landscape can be assessed. These viewpoints are based on: the perspective of the present inhabitants and users, the perspective of the past inhabitants and users and the narrative of the landscape. The first viewpoint deals with the history of the landscape, as perceived by the present inhabitants and users of the landscape. Stories are the central element in this viewpoint. The second viewpoint deals with the way previous inhabitants and users perceived and used the landscape. When making use of this viewpoint, spatial patterns and activities from previous generations can be revealed. The third viewpoint deals with the narrative of the landscape. In this viewpoint the dynamics of the landscape are the central element. Objects, patterns and structures within the landscape will be described, from a scientific point of view. Which viewpoint is taken depends on the goal of the research. In order to compile a solid biography of landscape the goal should be kept in mind and aspects which will be researched should be connected to this particular goal (Vervloet et al., 2010). Kolen (2007) makes clear that the biography of landscape is a concept which can be used from different scientific disciplines. It should be taken in mind that a biography of landscape is continuous and ever changing, since landscapes are always there and changing (Vervloet et al., 2010) Landscape biography in practical situations An ideal landscape biography should make the long-term history of a landscape or part of a landscape clear. It is thereby important to pay attention to the changing land use functions and important places in the (past) landscape. Knowledge gained during the construction of a landscape biography might be used in the promotion of a certain landscape. Furthermore, authenticity can be useful to consider the preservation, development or preservation through development of a certain element or landscape (Kolen, 2007). 15

34 Box 3: Biography of the Amersfoortseweg The Amersfoortseweg is already founded around This road connected Amersfoort and Utrecht with each other. Even though the road was going through a wide heath landscape, this road could be easily identified (this was not common in this time). In order to reach an easily identifiable road, the road was avoiding drifting sand areas and slopes. By this road the distance between Amersfoort and Utrecht became less. In order to provide opportunities for land development, crossroads were established. Although the development of the heath areas failed, this road changed the image of the landscape at that time. The designing of the village of Soesterberg was based upon the pattern of the Amersfoortseweg with its crossroads. Nowadays, this pattern can still be identified. At the moment built-up areas are allowed within the areas between the crossroads, the area outside is intended to serve nature and recreation purposes (Abrahamse, Brinkkemper & Spek, 2008). Landscape biography is a complex instrument to understand the landscape. Scientists, designers, policymakers and citizens all have knowledge of the landscape. All of these people are important when compiling a landscape biography (Reuselaars & Van der Valk, 2009). Hidding et al. (2001) state the importance of the use of different types of knowledge as well. According to them it is important to make use of local knowledge and expert knowledge when compiling a landscape biography. Of the same landscape, multiple landscape biographies can be made up. Since, people give different meanings to landscape, different biographies will exist. Whether a landscape biography is made from a single persons perspective or a group perspective will have some effect on the outcome of a biography as well. Different perspectives towards landscape biography have been discussed. Whereas a landscape biography can serve many purposes and made up from different perspectives, all approaches can be used. In this research, the work of Kolen (1993, in Elerie & Spek, 2010) will be the guiding principle. Since, it makes a distinction between the material world (physical landscape) and the world of ideas, meanings, representations and memories given to the landscape (social landscape). Therefore, it can be argued that this differentiation shows similarities with the division in physical and social landscape. Furthermore, the (cultural) history of the landscape matters, since a biography can only be compiled when something worth remembering or tracing back has happened in the landscape. Not only the past matters when compiling a landscape biography, the present and the future need to be considered as well. This will be viewed from a group perspective, which will be based upon the different policy documents that will be studied. 2.4 Landscape identity Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) define landscape identity as: the unique psycho-sociological perception of a place defined in a spatial-cultural sphere (page 334). It is important to keep in mind that there exist no good or bad landscapes, since landscape is perceived by everybody on its own manner. Landscape identity is often related to a level that people can identify themselves with, such as a national, regional or local level (Hospers, 2013). People often feel more attached to a landscape on a lower level, since they view and participate in this landscape from day to day. The local level can be placed in the regional level and also in the national level (Hospers, 2013; Stobbelaar & Pedroli, 2011). Place identity and regional identity are important in researching the landscape. Place identity deals with a small area in the landscape, which has a specific meaning shown in unique and/or 16

35 historical objects of the place. Regional identity on the other hand, deals with bigger areas. In relation to this bigger areas, the geography, natural and cultural heritage of the region are important (Stobbelaar & Pedroli, 2011). A landscape identity is based upon the landscape. People of different countries have different landscapes they appreciate. Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) in Hospers (2013) have identified four factors which people use when determining whether they like or dislike a certain landscape. These factors are: coherence, complexity, readability and mystery. People are more likely to appreciate a landscape if separate landscape elements tell a coherent story. A level of complexity is needed as well, since this makes people curious to find out more about the landscape. However, landscapes should still remain readable in order to keep people s attention. To some extent the landscape should have some mystery in it, since it makes people curious what they can find if they go a little further (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 in Hospers 2013). Box 4: Beauty is in the eye of the beholder It is not strange that landscapes possess different identities. Landscapes do not mean the same to everybody, so different identities can exist for the same landscape. A persons history attributes to the shaping of a landscape identity. If someone had a bad experience in Groningen, it is likely he/she will not like a similar landscape in a different place. Whereas the same landscape means a lot to a person who lives in Groningen. Past and current experiences play a role in the reasons why people like or dislike a certain landscape. Indeed, Beauty is in the eye of the beholder (Hospers, 2013) Perspectives upon identity Simon (2004) has done a research towards regional identities. Two different views on regional identities can be distinguished, namely: the essentialist and the constructivist view. In the essentialist view, identity is defined as something that is oblivious, static and homogeneous. According to this view, identity is something that can be viewed in an objective way. Since, there is only one explanation of the identity in a region, the identity of a region is the same for everybody. The constructivist view is less rigid, since identity is seen as something which is dynamic. Different people give different meanings to places and elements, therefore different identities will exist next to each other. This view acknowledges multiple identities for one place. Identities can change, since the feelings of people towards places changes during time (Simon, 2004). Bloemers (2010) states that identity is a concept which is ever changing. Time and context have an influence on the formation of an identity (Bloemers, 2010). This is in line with the argumentation of Simon (2004). Simon (2004) notes the essentialist view upon identity became less attractive in the 1980s. As a reaction upon this change of thoughts, the constructivist view began to establish. In this view people are giving identity towards a place. This can be done by an individual or a group (Bosma, 2010; Simon, 2004). Social constructions are contributing towards creating an identity. When people are compiling a landscape identity, different features play a role. Physical elements in the landscape, history, traditions and the local use of symbols all play a role in the compilation of a landscape identity. Altogether these features can be described as identity markers, they make up the identity of a landscape (Simon, 2004). 17

36 2.4.2 Factors influencing the formation of identity Considering the formation of identity, different stakeholders can be distinguished. These people are likely to create different identities, since they cope with the landscape in different ways. First, the perspective of the layman. This perspective has to do with the everyday life where people interpret and construct places. The second perspective deals with the different cultural and societal groups that can be distinguished in society. Different groups might think differently about the landscape identity. Thirdly, the professional perspective. People related to this perspective deal with landscape and its identity on a professional base. These people are responsible for the development of the landscape, this might lead to changes in the perception of the landscape identity as perceived by the layman. The last perspective, is the academic perspective. Objects within the landscape are studied by scientists. Since, people of the different perspectives deal in different ways with the landscape, it is likely that their landscape identities will differ (Simon, 2004). Stobbelaar and Hendriks (2006) viewed the impact of certain factors considering landscape identity. In figure 7 the landscape identity circle created by Stobbelaar and Hendriks (2006) can be viewed. This circle consists of four factors (cultural, geographical, personal and existential), which all have an impact on landscape identity (Stobbelaar & Hendriks, 2006). Related to these four factors, are the four different landscape identities that can be distinguished. The first, the cultural-geographical is about the distinct features of a region. Most important in this identity are the everyday features that define one place from another. The second, the personal-geographical landscape identity, deals with the perceived landscape. In this perspective the features and places do not have the same meaning to individuals. The third, the personal-existential landscape identity, deals with the meaning people give to a place. It is about the personal attachment to a place. The last, the existential-cultural landscape identity, is also about the meaning people give to a place. However, this identity differs from the third. In this identity it is not about personal identity, but about a group identity. (Stobbelaar & Hendriks, 2006; Stobbelaar & Pedroli, 2011). Figure 7: Landscape identity circle (Stobbelaar and Hendriks, 2006, page 202) According to Bosma (2010) a landscape identity can occur on four different levels, these are: individual, group, spatial and regional and political. An individual identity is made up by an individual person. This identity is based upon an individual's interpretation of the surrounding landscape. Personal environment and taste play a role in the formulation of this identity. Group identities, on the other hand, deal with multiple individuals who contribute towards a group identity. A group 18

37 identity is mostly based upon a (sub) culture. People can identify themselves with such a group identity. When dealing with spatial identity different elements in the landscape have their own identity based upon the history of that element. In the regional and political identity, the regional or national memory can be identified. As far as a regional or national memory exists, it is represented in this level of identity (Bosma, 2010). Different levels and categories of identity have been discussed by now. Just like the other concepts, many different interpretations can be made. Considering spatial planning and the aim of this research the cultural-geographical quadrant of Stobbelaar and Hendriks (2006) is the most important. Since, this quadrant focusses on elements that were or are important in the landscape and contribute to the identity of the landscape. Furthermore, different perspectives, levels and types from which an identity is formulated will be kept in mind. Since, it depends on context and (personal) background how a landscape identity is formulated. 2.5 Concepts in relation to each other Landscape can be identified as a concept on its own. However, landscape holds a central position in the other concepts as well. By now, landscape, landscape planning and landscape management, landscape biography and landscape identity have been discussed on their own. As follows from figure 8, landscape can be considered the overarching concept. In order to plan and manage the landscape, landscape biography and landscape identity are important concepts. The different relations that can be identified will be discussed in this paragraph. Figure 8: Diverse concepts and their relation to each other In the definition of the ELC, inhabitants of the landscape hold a central position (Council of Europe 2000a; 2000b). Therefore it can be argued that society is an important factor considering the landscape. Since, inhabitants of the landscape give meaning to a particular landscape (Elerie & Spek, 2010; Hospers, 2013; Jacobs, 2006). The landscape is part of people s identity and they are the people who create a landscapes identity. People give identity towards landscape on many different scales. The local scale is the level people identify themselves with most (Hospers, 2013). Multiple identities of the landscape can exist. Backgrounds of people differ, therefore different identities can be assigned to the same landscape (Simon, 2004). Considering landscape planning and landscape management, in the Netherlands, the landscape biography approach is commonly used when designing a landscape policy (Reuselaars & Van der Valk, 2009). The biography of the landscape tells a story, which can be used in the landscape policy. History matters when constructing a landscape biography. Different elements in the landscape find their origin in different times (Vervloet, 2007). These elements tell the story of the landscape, which can be told by the landscape itself and by its inhabitants. It is not only about the stories connected to the landscape, current and past elements within the landscape matter as well. In many landscapes elements of the past can still be traced back. These elements are a part of the identity of the 19

38 landscape. Elements in the landscape which have a special meaning to its inhabitants, over a long period of time, should be mentioned in a landscape biography (Kolen, 2007). It is likely that the landscape identity is present in this biography as well. Since, the identity of landscape is constructed by the inhabitants of the landscape and based upon the current and past landscapes (Simon, 2004). When compiling a landscape biography, the current and past landscapes are important (Samuels, 1979). Both the current and past landscapes matter as well when compiling a landscape identity. In a landscape biography as well as a landscape identity, past and present landscapes are important. In order to decide upon protecting, planning and managing the landscape, it is important to make use of the past as well as the present landscape. Participation is helpful to let inhabitants of the landscape and policymakers and managers think together about the landscape. It is one of the measures mentioned in the ELC (Council of Europe, 2000a; 2000b). Landscape and taking care of the landscape affects all inhabitants. Therefore it is important that the people who live, work and recreate in the landscape decide together with the policymakers, about the content of the policy (Council of Europe, 2000b). In order to let people participate, landscape identity and landscape biography provide a good starting point. As Elerie and Spek (2010) already pointed out, landscape is something everybody knows. Landscape identity and landscape biography may provide a starting point, to start the discussion about landscape. In that way the identity and history of the landscape are captured, which can be used considering landscape planning and landscape management. In the ELC emphasis is laid on the protection, planning and management of the landscape (Council of Europe, 2000a; 2000b). As Antrop (2005) already pointed out it is difficult to manage the landscape. Inhabitants of the same landscape have different opinions about developing and managing the landscape. Landscape biography and landscape identity are concepts which can be used to explore the landscape and the meaning of different places to its inhabitants. 20

39 3. METHODS In this chapter it is explained how the research has been carried out. This research consists of three types of data that have been collected and analysed: scientific literature, policy documents of the case study municipalities and interviews with the officers who are responsible for the landscape policy. In order to give a short description of the research process, the diverse data resources will each be discussed in terms of data collection and data analysis. 3.1 Scientific literature The scientific literature has been collected by means of a desk study. Landscape planning and management have been the central topic in this research. Therefore different concepts related to landscape planning and management have been studied. Central in this research have been the concepts of landscape, landscape biography and landscape identity. In order to tell something about the planning and management approach of the case study municipalities landscape planning and management have been conceptualised as well. Whereas the ELC is part of this research, the definitions of landscape, landscape planning and landscape management have been used as a central definition within these concepts. For landscape, the different views upon the landscape (Jacobs, 2006; Palang et al., 2011; Printsmann et al., 2011) and the changeability of the landscape have been the central topics. Landscape planning and management have been discussed from the idea that landscapes change (Antrop, 2005; Reuselaars & Van der Valk, 2009; Vervloet, 2007). Landscape biography and landscape identity have been discussed, since these concepts provide opportunities to deal with landscape on a local level. 3.2 Policy documents This research has been focussed on the municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Deventer and Zwolle. The choice for this municipalities has been a conscious choice. These municipalities are all located within the same province. Two rural (Dalfsen and Raalte) and two urban (Deventer and Zwolle) municipalities have been chosen as case studies, in order to assess whether differences between the rural and urban municipalities might exist. The case study municipalities have been introduced in the introduction. One of the sub questions is specifically about the municipalities, so they needed to be introduced before the question was stated. Before assessing the municipal policies, the European, national and regional policies related to landscape have been discussed. The discussed policies and laws are deduced from the interviews and several related policies and laws have been discussed as well. In order to assess whether these municipalities cope with landscape in a way related to the ELC, policies related to landscape have been studied. Originally it was the idea to only analyse the landscape development plan and the spatial development strategy of each municipality. After the interview with the officer of the municipality of Deventer it was decided to analyse the external appearance of buildings as well. In order to compare the policies of the different municipalities with each other, it was necessary that all municipalities had such a policy. All municipalities hold these policies, so it became possible to compare the municipalities with each other. Roe (2013) compiled a research towards the presence of ELC principles in national and regional policies. In order to carry this research out she came up with a checklist, which served as a source of inspiration for the checklist that is used in this research. The checklist in Annex I is created and used 21

40 to analyse the policy documents of the case study municipalities. This checklist is based upon the theoretical framework of this research. Every policy document has been assessed according to this checklist. In total eleven documents have been analysed, whereas one should expect twelve (three different policies times four different municipalities). However, the municipalities of Raalte and Deventer, together with the municipality of Olst-Wijhe, have created a landscape development plan together. After the policy document had been assessed the relation with the ELC was estimated, according to a five point Likert-scale. These outcomes have been used to give an answer on the main question of this research. The checklist in Annex I serves as an example, in the interviews and checklist report all checklists that are filled in can be found. 3.3 Interviews In order to know more about the process behind designing the policies and the position of the landscape policy in the municipalities, interviews have been arranged. These interviews were scheduled with the officers who are taking care of the municipal landscape policies. The interview consisted of eight open ended questions in order to let the interviewees tell their story. In Annex II the interview questions are mentioned. The worked out interviews can be found in the interview and checklist report. The results of the interviews have been used to illustrate or clarify the different concepts. Personal interviews have been scheduled with three out of four municipalities. The appointment with the municipality of Dalfsen has been made with an officer who is responsible for the spatial planning side of the landscape policies and not with the officer involved with the policy making. Whereas summer holiday already started it was not possible to reschedule the appointment. Instead, both officers have answered the interview questions by . Appointments have been made with the officers of the municipalities of Raalte, Zwolle and Deventer. In Table 2 some background information on the interviews is given. Table 2: Background information on the interviews. Municipality Location of interview Date of interview Spoken with a Dalfsen - 30 June, 01, 02 & 03 July 2014* Spatial planning officer and green and landscape officer* Raalte Town hall 07 July 2014 Public space officer Zwolle City office 04 July 2014 Green space officer Deventer Location Leeuwenbrug 09 July 2014 Policy officer with a background in landscape architecture *Contact by In general these interviews took a little longer than thirty minutes. These interviews have been recorded, so it was easier to listen, respond to answers and work the interviews out. The interviews have been carried out in Dutch and afterwards translated into English, which was sometimes hard due to typical Dutch words that were used during the interview. 22

41 4. EUROPEAN, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICIES AND LAWS 4.1 European level In the ELC it is mentioned that: developments in agriculture, forestry, industrial and mineral production techniques and in regional planning, town planning, transport, infrastructure, tourism and recreation and, at a more general level, changes in the world economy are in many cases accelerating the transformation of landscapes (Council of Europe, 2000a, preamble). The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is mentioned by the policy officer of the municipality of Raalte as a European programme which had an influence on the landscape policy of the municipality of Raalte. The CAP has a long history in Europe, this policy was already founded in From 1962 until now, the CAP has been altered several times. Whereas in the first decade the CAP was focussed on fair prices for farmers, nowadays the CAP is more focussed on economic and ecological competitiveness. Since the 1990s food quality has become more important. Hereby, the protection and production of local and traditional foods is an important issue. In 1992 farmers were encouraged to take care of their environment and perform their businesses in a sustainable way. The countryside has become an important place to recreate. Whereas the rural landscapes within European countries differ from each other, rural landscapes have become interesting places to go on a holiday or recreate. It are the farmers who provide the rural landscapes where people can recreate (European Commission, 2012). Agricultural land and forests make up about ninety per cent of the European landscape (Europe, 2014). The CAP is therefore an important policy to consider in relation with the ELC and specifically landscape. The policy officer of the municipality of Raalte also mentioned the Water Framework Directive (WFD) had an influence on their landscape policy. Every river basin in the EU has its own management plans and programs of measures. Whereas the natural borders of the water are respected, developments within the river basin can be adjusted to that specific situation. Whereas the WFD protects all waters, policies on national, regional and local level need to take care of the guidelines that are valid in the river basin they are a part of. A general rule is the following: In case of water contamination the polluter pays. Other rules and/or guidelines can be made on basis of the river basins. Sustainability is an important point of attention considering these rules and guidelines. Many activities have an impact on the water, therefore it is important to make use of the water in a sustainable way (European Commission, 2002). The Birds and Habitats Directive is an important European nature protection law. In this directive species and areas are protected. Species are protected in the protected areas as well as outside these areas. The areas which are protected are known under the name of Special Protection Area (SPA). All European SPAs taken together make up the Natura 2000 network. On a national level these areas and species have to be protected, which will be regulated in a law. In the Netherlands, Natura 2000 areas are given legal status in the Nature Protection Act (Kistenkas, 2010). In figure 9 the Dutch SPAs are represented. Only a very small part of the case study municipalities is assigned with a SPA. Figure 9: Birds and Habitats directive (Compendium voor de Leefomgeving, 2012) 23

42 In the ELC natural and cultural heritage are mentioned as basic part of the landscape (Council of Europe, 2000a). Protection of valuable natural areas is regulated by the designation of Natura 2000 areas. The protection of cultural heritage is regulated in the Faro Convention. In the Faro Convention, society holds an important place. In fact, the Faro Convention argues to place people in the centre of the cultural heritage concept. It is a logical point of view, whereas raising awareness amongst people is one of the goals of the Faro Convention (Council of Europe, 2005). Whereas the Faro Convention provides a starting point in order to deal with cultural heritage, the Natura 2000 areas can be designated as a starting point to protect the natural heritage. In the ELC both natural and cultural heritage are given a prominent place, since cultural and natural heritage are a part of local cultures and are important when giving an identity to the landscape (Council of Europe, 2000a). The Netherlands has signed and ratified the ELC (Council of Europe, 2014a), however the Netherlands has not signed nor ratified the Faro Convention (Council of Europe, 2014b). Although the Netherlands has not signed the Faro Convention, cultural heritage is an important topic in the Netherlands. It is obvious that these policies and laws are not the only ones that will have an impact on the landscape. The CAP, WFD and Birds and Habitats Directive are specified since these regulations are mentioned by interviewees of different municipalities. The policies and laws mentioned in this paragraph are about agriculture, water and protected species and areas. Other legislation will have an impact on the landscape as well. Whereas these are not specifically mentioned by the interviewees, they are not further explored. 4.2 National level Past national policies After the Netherlands signed and ratified the ELC, several changes in landscape policy and laws have been made. The Belvedere policy was a national policy from 1999 until 2009, nowadays it is a task of the National Cultural Heritage Agency (Dessing & Pedroli, 2013). Just like the Belvedere policy, the National Landscapes are no longer a national responsibility. National Landscapes have become a regional responsibility (Dessing & Pedroli, 2013). Although the National Landscapes are no longer guided by the national government, National Landscape IJsseldelta holds a firm position in the municipality of Zwolle (in Kampen and Zwartewaterland as well). During the interview with the policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle it turned out the National Landscape IJsseldelta holds a firm position in policies of the municipality. The National Landscape is very clear, it has a status. The main structures of the landscape can be traced back in every plan. In Zwolle, this has been always the case. New developments follow the history of the landscape (Policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle, interviewed on 4 July 2014). As this quote shows, the position of the National Landscape is important in the landscape policies of the municipality of Zwolle. The municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Zwolle and Deventer all made up a landscape development plan. In previous years municipalities could get a subsidy from the national government, in order to design and carry out actions concerning landscape. Nowadays, the subsidy on designing a landscape development plan is no longer available (Dessing & Pedroli, 2013). Another policy which is no longer operative is the National Spatial Strategy. In the National Spatial Strategy two different types of landscapes were distinguished: specific landscape policy and generic landscape policy. Specific landscape policy was dedicated to the National Landscapes (Kistenkas, 2010). Nowadays, responsibility for the National Landscapes is placed at a regional level (Dessing & 24

43 Pedroli, 2013). As Kistenkas (2010) points out National Landscapes are: Areas in which a special cohesion exists between the diverse components of the landscape, like nature, natural landscape relief, land use forms and built-up areas (page 52). The generic landscape policy was concerned with regional and local landscape policies outside the National Landscapes. In order to stimulate provinces to take care of the landscape, a policy named developing landscape with quality was created. This policy intended to take care of the natural and cultural qualities of the landscape as well as the user friendliness and the experiences in relation to the landscape (Kistenkas, 2010). The generic landscape policy could well be linked to the ELC, since natural and cultural landscapes were important in this policy as well as the perception and experiences of people (Council of Europe, 2000a) Current national policies Only a very small part of the National Spatial Strategy is implemented in its successor, the Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space. In the Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space it is announced that landscape policy has no national ground anymore. Taking care of the landscape has become a task for the lower level governments, the provinces and the municipalities. There are two exceptions to this decentralisation. Firstly, the natural and cultural historical qualities of the Waddenzee, Noordzee and IJsselmeer, still remain a national task and therefore ask for national policies. Secondly, international/national cultural historical and natural qualities are important and should be preserved and enhanced. These areas are limited to the UNESCO world heritage sites, remarkable town and villages scenes and cultural historical values in or on the seabed (Ministerie van I&M, 2012). Provinces are held responsible for finding a balance between urbanization and landscape. This provides more opportunities for regional solutions, especially in the National Landscapes. The diversity and the genesis of the Netherlands should remain visible in these National Landscapes, since this is the reason why these landscapes became National Landscapes (Ministerie van I&M, 2012). In the Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space experiences and identity of the landscape are hardly mentioned. Whereas liveability is a key issue in the Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space, it could be expected that experiences and identity of landscapes are important. People give meaning to the landscape and therefore help in creating a landscape identity. Experiences and landscape identity contribute towards the liveability of a landscape, therefore these topics should not be neglected. In the ELC society holds a strong position in which identities and experiences play a major role (Council of Europe, 2000a). Dessing and Pedroli (2013) state that, to which extent the Netherlands meet the requirements of the ELC is no longer a national responsibility, it has become a provincial responsibility. They thereby refer to the provincial task of taking care for the landscape. With the National Ecological Network natural areas are protected and will be connected with each other. Four different categories can be distinguished: existing nature, developing new nature, agricultural nature and realising robust corridors. Provinces and municipalities have to imply the boundaries of the National Ecological Network in their policies. The boundaries of the National Ecological Network are represented in figure 10. As follows from figure 10, many parts of the Netherlands are included in this National Ecological Network. It is not possible to build anything in these areas or allow other activities with an impact on the nature. The development principle of the National Ecological Network is: No, unless there are no alternatives, there is a huge public interest and compensation has to be paid. In case a development meets these requirements, alternative 25

44 Figure 10: National Ecological Network (Compendium voor de leefomgeving, 2011) natural environment has to be provided and additionally financial compensation may be required (Kistenkas, 2010). In the Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space attention is paid towards the National Ecological Network. The Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space makes clear that the accessibility, recreational value of these areas and the cultural historical and landscape values all play a role in the realisation of the National Ecological Network (Ministerie van I&M, 2012). The National Ecological Network fits within the ELC, since it is focusses on the protection, restoration and development of natural areas. Not all areas within the National Ecological Network could be considered natural heritage. However, there is much attention for nature, which makes up a large part of the landscape. The policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle mentioned that the Room for the River programme has an impact on the landscape policy of the municipality of Zwolle. Room for the River is a national Key Planning Decision, which is focussed on river areas in the Netherlands. Along the major rivers projects are/will be carried out in order to make the landscapes near the river a safer place to live. These projects are aimed at giving the river more space to flow. This projects will give the river more capacity to collect the water. In the future areas along the river will be safer places to live (Ruimte voor de Rivier, 2007) Current national laws One of the general measures of the ELC is the recognition of landscape in law (Council of Europe, 2000a). As listed above there are several laws in the Netherlands in which landscape has a role. In the Nature Protection Act the Dutch Natura 2000 areas are integrated. However, this law is not only about the implementation of the Natura 2000 areas. Natural monuments, protected landscapes and other protected international areas can be found in the Nature Protection Act as well. The Natura 2000 areas and the other protected international areas are directed from the European level to the national level. It is up to the provinces (the regional level) to decide upon the designation of natural monuments and protected landscapes. Municipalities have to imply these monuments and landscapes in their policies and zoning plan (Kistenkas, 2010). SPAs hold a special position in the Nature Protection Act. Development in a SPA is not easy to realise. If a development will have a significant impact on a SPA, there are several requirements this development has to meet. In form of the habitat test a development is critically reviewed. This test consists of the following elements: 1. Has the development significant effects on the SPA? 2. In case of a yes, an appropriate assessment needs to be done. In case of a no, a lighter assessment needs to be done. 3. Are there no alternatives? 4. Are there public interests? 5. Compensation has to find place (Kistenkas, 2010, page 64). 26

45 If a development meets these requirements a development can be allowed (Kistenkas, 2010). However, for businesses it is not easy to be located in a SPA. This can be illustrated by an example the policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle mentioned. Several businesses in the municipality of Zwolle are unable to expand. Due to Natura 2000 different companies are not allowed to grow anymore. The conflict between nature and economy becomes heightened by this guideline. It is a pity since, this leads to negative feelings towards nature policies (Policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle). This quote shows a practical situation of a conflict between natural and economic values. Since, the area is designated as Natura 2000 area, expansions are prohibited. Natural values in the area are consequently protected, while the companies cannot grow anymore due to this designation. Conflicts between nature and economy are likely to develop, as is the case in the municipality of Zwolle. Already founded in 1928 is the Nature Scenery Act. This law can be defined as a finance law. Estate owners can apply for financial resources. This act is specifically focussed on taxes. If estate owners maintain the estate and its natural surroundings, estate owners can apply for financial resources as mentioned in this law. By financial compensation the natural scenery of the landscape of estate areas is preserved (Kistenkas, 2010). The Nature Scenery Act is thus specifically focussed on the landscape at estates. The policy officers of the municipalities Dalfsen, Raalte and Deventer have all mentioned the presence of estates as a quality of their municipality. This law is consequently applicable on these municipalities. However, it should not be expected the municipality itself is dealing with this law. Since, this law is primarily focussed on the estates (Kistenkas, 2010). At the moment the Spatial planning act is an important act considering spatial planning and indirectly the appearance of the landscape of the Netherlands. In the Spatial planning act, rules considering spatial planning are given. The government, provinces and municipalities are all obligated to have a spatial development strategy. The Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space is the spatial development strategy of the Dutch government. In a spatial development strategy governments describe their integral vision on the environment. This plan is only binding the government itself. In an integration plan, the national government and provinces are providing inhabitants with a legally binding document. On a municipal level, these rules can be found in a zoning plan. Municipalities need to imply integration plans of the national government and province in their zoning plans (Kistenkas, 2010) Future law on the environment In 2018 the Environmental Act will come into force. This law will focus on the environment, in the broadest sense of the word. Nature, water, spatial planning, environmental issues, building regulations, infrastructure, cultural heritage and monument care will all be integrated in the Environmental Act. A good physical living environment is the central issue in the Environmental Act. As the concept Environmental Act looks all laws, considering the physical environment, with its associated Orders in Council will become part of this act. The biggest changes on a municipal level are: the spatial development strategy will no longer be a compulsory document and zoning plans will be replaced by one municipal environmental plan. All plans should be available on the internet. In this way inhabitants have easily access to all available plans considering the environment and can therefore quickly view what is allowed at their property (Minsterie van I&M, 2013). 27

46 4.3 Regional level The national government did not officially decentralise landscape policy towards lower level governments. Therefore, it is up to the regional and local level to decide if they carry out a landscape policy or not (Luiten, 2013). In order to assess whether the landscape policy of the province of Overijssel has an influence on the landscape policies of the municipalities, the highlights of the landscape policy of Overijssel will be discussed. The interviewees have mentioned policies and laws of different levels are used when creating a policy on a municipal level. The policy officer of the municipality of Deventer mentioned the policies of national and provincial governments were used in order to create the landscape development plan. The provincial policies have been used the most, whereas the province is the level closest related to the municipal level Environmental vision Overijssel The province of Overijssel has made its view on the physical environment clear in the environmental vision. This document is mentioned by the policy officer of the municipality of Raalte as a document of the province which had an impact on the landscape development plan. The policy officer of the municipality of Deventer noted sustainability and spatial quality are important features which play a role on the provincial level. In 2009 the environmental vision was determined, which was followed by an update in In the environmental vision sustainability and spatial quality can be traced back in the vision and ambition of the province of Overijssel. Developments within the landscape need to be sustainable, so the next generation can make use of this landscape/these landscape element(s). The province has set seven ambitions considering spatial quality. Living and working, agricultural landscapes, nature, landscape, infrastructure, water and spatial identities are the different topics to which the ambitions are dedicated (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). When looking at these different topics, it becomes clear that landscape is a topic on its own, as well as different elements within the landscape. Policies of the province of Overijssel, mentioned in the environmental vision, have been divided in two different environments: the green and the urban environment. Policies related to the green environment are about the areas that lay outside the city and village boundaries as well as the main infrastructure network. Landscape in the green environment is focussed on the diverse landscapes and cultural heritage. Landscape in the urban environment is highly focussed on the character of the city or village (identity). As the province argues the character of a city or village is important for its inhabitants, companies and tourists. Diversity, cultural heritage and (inner-) cities matter considering the urban environment. Both diversity and cultural heritage have been mentioned as important features to reach the ambition considering landscape. Emphasising the diversity of landscapes within Overijssel is done by making use of the identity of the different regions. Cultural heritage and several specific landscape elements, such as real estates, National Landscapes and areas near cities, play a major role in preserving and strengthening the diversity between the landscapes. Two different National Landscapes are located in Overijssel. National Landscape IJsseldelta is partially located in the municipality of Zwolle. Key qualities of this National Landscape are: openness, the allotment and the small height differences in form of mounds and banks of a creek (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). The policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle mentioned the National Park as one of the qualities of the municipality. In the landscape development plan of the municipality, the National Landscape is mentioned as one of the qualities of the municipalities Zwolle, Zwartewaterland and Kampen (Ten Cate, 2010). 28

47 Protecting the cultural heritage is mainly a task for the national government and the local government. The province of Overijssel made some additions to the national laws. In case of a development municipalities need to keep archaeological and cultural (historical) values in mind. The province has made a cultural historical map which points out cultural historical areas of provincial interest. Cultural heritage needs to be an integral part of spatial projects. The challenge is not so much about preserving cultural heritage, but about finding a way to Figure 11: Heritage from the past, designated with a new destination (Paalman, 2013) develop the cultural heritage in a way that the current society can work with the cultural heritage. The province of Overijssel is thereby stimulating the transformation and reuse of cultural heritage (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). This line of thinking can be compared to the Belvedere programme, of which the main line of reasoning was: preservation through development (Janssen et al., 2014). In figure 11 an example of using heritage from the past, while adjusting its function to the present time is given. Figure 11 shows a former church which is currently in use as a bookshop. Waanders (the name of the bookshop) in de Broeren (name of the church) is located in the municipality of Zwolle. Considering the urban environment, the province has stated three different development perspectives. The first perspective is focussed on the cities. Cities are designated as the places where living, working and above all, major facilities are located. In case of a development, the identity of the city should be preserved and if possible strengthened. The second perspective deals with diverse built-up areas, which are quite diverse. In order to preserve the diversity, developments within the built-up areas should be in line with the identity of the settlement. The last perspective deals with the main infrastructure network. The infrastructure within the province should give people the opportunity to travel fast and in a safe way from one place to another. Municipalities are primarily responsible for the realisation of developments according to these development perspectives. In cases of provincial interest, arrangements with the concerning municipality will be made (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). Any development arranged in the green environment should have a positive effect on the qualitative perception of the landscape. This is stated in the policy document Kwaliteitsimpuls groene omgeving: een ontwikkelingsgerichte aanpak. This policy is about rules and regulations considering development in the green environment. It is based upon the principles of efficient and careful use of space (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). Again, spatial quality is an important issue considering the physical living environment. Any development has to contribute towards an improved spatial quality and therefore opportunities for social economic development might be created. The development has to be integrated in a way that fits the landscape. The characteristics of an area are important, since a development can be integrated in the landscape based upon these characteristics. Connecting area characteristics with new developments may result in new developments and even 29

48 new identities. By focussing on the characteristics of an area, the current qualities will be preserved while new qualities might be added (Provincie Overijssel, 2010) Catalogue Area Characteristics The characteristics of the area are mentioned in the catalogue Area Characteristics and are divided in four different layers: the natural landscape, the cultural landscape, the urban landscape and the lust and leisure landscape (Provincie Overijssel, 2009a; Provincie Overijssel, 2010; Provincie Overijssel: 2013a). The catalogue Area Characteristics mentions the key qualities of the landscape of the province Overijssel, based upon the four different layers. Per layer the characteristics, previous developments and current status, ambitions and guidelines to reach the ambition are mentioned (Provincie Overijssel, 2009a). Not visible in this catalogue are the changes in parcellation. The landscape of the Overijssel has not only changed because of heath reclamation. Due to land consolidation the landscape of the province of Overijssel has changed. However, these changes are not visible in the catalogue area characteristics Natural layer Figure 12 shows the natural layer of the municipalities of Dalfsen, Zwolle, Deventer and Raalte. It becomes clear from figure 12 that sand ridges and plains form the majority of the natural layer. Furthermore, brook valleys, former bogs and riverbanks and back lands can be identified. Figure 12: Natural layer of the case study municipalities (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a) The sand ridges and plains are the most common in the four case study municipalities. Preserving the natural differences between high and lower lying areas and dry and wet areas is the most important in these areas. The relief in these areas should be preserved. Any development has to be focussed on either the height differences or the different water systems of the dry and wet areas. In the brook valleys the water system is the guiding principle. The water level should be as high as possible. However, functions within these areas should be able to fulfil their duties. Water storage can be realised in these areas as In the municipality of Dalfsen a small area can be identified where peat has been cultivated. The province has given some guidelines for peat remnants. However, within the four municipalities there are no peat remnants left. The riverbanks and back lands, or more commonly known as the river area, are like the brook valleys focussed on the water system. The river is the most important character in these areas. Rivers, well. 30

49 riverbanks, backgrounds and river dunes have to be protected and should remain visible in the landscape. If a development on the riverbanks or in the floodplains finds place, it should be focussed on the natural appearance of the river area. For example, a development in the floodplains has to contribute to more room for the river. In the municipality of Raalte one moraine can be identified. The village of Luttenberg is partly situated on this moraine, where height differences can be noted. It is up to the municipality of Raalte to preserve the relief of the moraine. In case of a development, the natural qualities of the moraine should be strengthened and become more visible (Provincie Overijssel; 2009a) Agricultural cultivated layer From figure 13 it can be deduced that there are many diverse agricultural cultivated landscapes which can be identified. These are the: old farms landscape, open fields landscape, young heath reclamation landscape, peat landscape, brook landscape, peat reclamation landscape and back lands. The back lands have already been discussed in the previous paragraph, so they will not be discussed in this paragraph. The open fields landscape is characterized by the buildings located on the edge of dry and wet soils. The open field itself is an open area, laying on the dry soils. It is important the open field remains an open area, so the open field landscape can be recognized. On the edge between dry and wet soils, small-scale landscape elements, like sandy paths, hedgerows and small scale woods, should be preserved. The old farms landscape resembles of the open fields landscape. Main difference is the situation of the agricultural buildings. In the open fields landscape agricultural buildings are situated near each other, while the old farms landscape is made up of separate agricultural Figure 13: Agricultural cultivated layer of the case study municipalities (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a) businesses scattered through the landscape. This small-scale landscape should be preserved and provides opportunities for many functions. The openness of the area should be preserved, as well as the small height differences. The young heath reclamation landscapes are relatively new landscapes. Agricultural fields are huge and open. In this landscape straight lines are very common. Developments within this landscape have to contribute to the preservation and/or strengthening of the linear structures. 31

50 In the municipality of Dalfsen a small area is identified as a peat landscape. Like the young heath reclamation landscape, this area is characterized by huge open landscapes and a linear allotment as well. These characteristics should be preserved, so developments should fit these characteristics. The brook landscape can be found in the lower lying areas, mainly located near brooks. Due to upscaling of agricultural enterprises, the brook landscape is changing. The wet character of these areas diminished, since agriculture asks for dry soils. Nowadays, the brook landscape can hardly be identified. In order to make this landscape type visible again, the water system will act as a starting point. In this landscape the water level will be as high as possible. Building is not allowed and the brook is the guiding principle in these areas. In the municipality of Zwolle a small area is identified as a peat reclamation landscape. The polder Mastenbroek is characterized by agricultural businesses laying on mounds. This image of the polder is protected, the wide character of the area should be preserved as well as the housing and roads (Provincie Overijssel, 2009a) Urban landscape Figure 14 shows the urban landscape of the municipalities. This map shows the cities, villages and the main-infrastructure network. Considering the cities and villages, the historical city centres are important. The current road pattern and buildings, which can be traced back, should be preserved. History is the leading feature in the inner cities and villages. For the rest of the city or village, a development is sustained as long as it fits within the current built-up environment. At the edges of cities and villages, most business parks are situated. Business parks should find a balance between the green environment and the built-up areas. More attention needs to be paid towards the appearance of the business parks. Green, energy, water and parking are thereby features which should be reviewed. Figure 14: Urban landscape of the case study municipalities (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a) Considering the traffic lines, first, the main infrastructure network consists of highways, expressways, distributor roads and access roads. The slower the traffic flows and diverse. modes of transportation merge, the more the landscape and its history become important. It is for example stated that the distributor and access roads should be a part of the landscape, if possible following the past track. Second, there are seven train stations situated in the study-area. These stations should be easily accessible and buildings with cultural historical value should be preserved and if necessary given another purpose. Third, the slow traffic network can be identified. 32

51 This network is made-up of cycling, walking and horseback riding paths and the sailing routes. Combining these networks altogether, a dense traffic network along the province can be identified (Provincie Overijssel, 2009a) Lust and leisure landscape In figure 15 a global idea of the lust and leisure landscape, within the study area is presented. Most remarkable in figure 15 are the estates. Throughout the whole study area estates can be identified. These estates should be preserved and restored. Some parts of an estate are even listed as cultural heritage, since these landscape elements show a part of the history of the landscape. City and village edges are important places in terms of the lust and leisure landscape. The edges of a city or village are closely located to the green environment surrounding the city or village. Cultural historical remnants of the past are important to decide in which way the city or village edges will develop (Provincie Overijssel, 2009a). People find edges attractive places to recreate. In edge areas many different functions come together, which makes these places attractive to spend free time (Gehl, 2010). Furthermore, darkness is clearly visible in the case study areas. In these areas only a small amount of people live and many people make use of these areas. In these areas artificial light Figure 15: Lust and leisure landscape of the case study municipalities (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a) should only be used when it is absolutely necessary. In case of a development in these areas, the impact of artificial light should be as low as possible (Provincie Overijssel, 2009a) Concluding remarks about the Catalogue Area Characteristics In order to make the landscape in Overijssel even more attractive, landscape in general should become more accessible. This is a difficult ambition to realise. Landscape is owned by many different people, who all own their private piece of land. When talking about landscape, people perceive the landscape as something common (Antrop, 2005). This common perception of the term landscape makes it difficult to plan or manage the landscape. It can be argued that a partial landscape biography of Overijssel can be deduced from the Catalogue Area Characteristics. Different layers of the landscape have been assessed and different elements of the landscape are explained and visible by means of multiple maps. Whereas the focus on the different functions in the landscape are visible, the development of the landscape is not visible. It cannot be considered a complete landscape, whereas the changes in the landscapes cannot be discovered. Reuselaars and Van der Valk (2009) have mentioned the idea that landscapes change are 33

52 central in the landscape biography concept. This is not visible in the Catalogue Area Characteristics. Different layers have been distinguished, but to changing landscapes no attention is paid (Provincie Overijssel, 2009a) Room for the Vecht Figure 16: The Vecht river in the municipalities of Zwolle and Dalfsen (Waterschap Groot Salland, 2014) Room for the Vecht is a programme which is focussed on the area characteristics of a river area. The main goal of this programme is to make the river Vecht a semi-natural lowland river (Provincie Overijssel, 2009b). Changes in the landscape and river should be made in order to accomplish this goal. The municipalities of Dalfsen and Zwolle are situated near the river Vecht, as follows from figure 16. The policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle mentioned the programme had an influence on the landscape policy of the municipality of Zwolle. The programme is based upon five different statements, which are all focussed on the Vecht and its surroundings. Considering landscape in relation to the Vecht, the floodplains and the image of the Vecht are important. The floodplains of the river Vecht should remain open, with opportunities for agriculture, nature, recreation and landscape. Agriculture is the dominant land use form in the floodplains, however opportunities for nature and recreation in the landscape along and near the river will be used as well. Before the Room for the Vecht programme started, the four municipalities already made plans to integrate the river more in the appearance of their municipality. This development is integrated with the statement to make the Vecht the front of the Vechtdal. Room for the Vecht helped the different municipalities to create connections between these separate plans (Provincie Overijssel, 2009b). From the assessment of the checklists, it followed the municipality of Dalfsen considers the landscape along the Vecht as valuable. In the spatial development strategy it is one of the central goals to make the semi-natural lowland river visible again (BMC Advies en Management, 2009) Environmental regulation Overijssel In the environmental regulation Overijssel legally defined objectives for the province of Overijssel are stated. Municipalities have to imply measures mentioned in the environmental regulation. When a policy of a municipality differs too much, from what the province wants, the province can give a reactive designation as mentioned in the Spatial planning act (Kistenkas, 2010). The environmental regulation Overijssel states what objectives the municipalities in the province have to meet. This regulation consists of very diverse topics, which can all be related to landscape. Agriculture, nature 34

53 and water directives were mentioned during the interviews as directives which had an impact on the landscape policy of all case study municipalities. In the environmental vision a short note on the vision of the province Overijssel is given. Cities and villages provide a solid basis for culture and employment. These cities and villages are embedded in a landscape, in which living, agriculture, nature and water are important topics (Provincie Overijssel, 2014). In general developments within the agricultural sector are allowed, as long as the development has a positive effect on the spatial quality. In case a development has a (slightly) negative effect, compensatory measures have to be taken to reach a positive effect on the spatial quality. In case of a relocation of an agricultural company, there should be a public interest (Provincie Overijssel, 2014). This attitude towards the agricultural businesses is mentioned in the Qualitative impulse green environment. This document can act as a guide for municipalities to deal with developments in the green environment (Provincie Overijssel, 2010). Agricultural businesses and developments are not allowed everywhere. In the environmental regulation it is stated that agricultural businesses and services are prohibited in groundwater protection areas (Provincie Overijssel, 2014). The policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle mentioned some (agricultural) businesses, located within Natura 2000 areas, are unable to expand their businesses. This is not mentioned in the environmental regulation, so municipalities are not able to find all European and national regulations in the provincial regulation. There are no direct references made towards the CAP. From the perspective of nature the National Landscape IJsseldelta, National Ecological Network and woods and nature outside the National Ecological Network are important. The key qualities of National Landscape IJsseldelta (openness, the allotment and the small height differences in form of mounds and banks of a creek (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a) are not only mentioned in the vision of the province. These qualities are also given a firm position in the environmental regulation, which means the concerning municipalities need to take care of these qualities. The key qualities, both cultural historical and natural characteristics, are important and show a part of the history and different landscapes in the Netherlands. However, key qualities outside the National Landscape matter as well. Key qualities and its supporting document, Catalogue Area Characteristics hold a firm position. Furthermore, attention needs to be paid to landscapes of the past, since these landscapes are part of peoples identity (Provincie Overijssel, 2014). The National Ecological Network is divided in existing nature and nature that has yet to be realised. Municipalities are obliged to protect these areas and make sure the nature will be realised. In order to give the National Ecological Network a legally binding status these areas need to be designated in a zoning plan. Woods and nature outside the National Ecological Network are protected by the focus on spatial quality. In case of a development in a nature area outside the National Ecological Network, the development should preserve, restore and/or develop the existing nature and landscape values (Provincie Overijssel, 2014). Sustainability and spatial quality are the main issues in the environmental vision of Overijssel. During the interview with the policy officer of the municipality of Deventer, these issues were emphasised as well. In the environmental vision both sustainability and spatial quality are extensively dealt with (Provincie Overijssel, 2013). In programmes such as the Room for the Vecht and the programme for the green environment, attention is paid towards both subjects as well. Sometimes it is not directly visible, but indirectly the essence of sustainability and spatial quality can be noted (Provincie 35

54 Overijssel, 2009b; Provincie Overijssel, 2010). However, in the main legal binding document (the environmental regulation), sustainability is hardly noted. Much attention is paid towards spatial quality and the sight of the landscape. Unlike sustainability, which is not even defined in the part about spatial quality and sustainability (Provincie Overijssel, 2014). Whereas the province of Overijssel is focussed on both spatial quality and sustainability, it should be defined in the environmental regulation. 4.4 Relations between the different levels It is clear that there are many policies and laws which give directions towards planning and managing the landscape. In Table 3 the diverse policies and laws of the different levels are listed. In case a policy or law is covering the same content, these are mentioned in the same line. Table 3: Policies and laws on European, national and regional level ELC CAP European level National Level Regional level Belvedere* & National Spatial Strategy* WFD Room for the River Room for the Vecht Birds and Habitats Directive Natura 2000 * These policies no longer exist National Ecological Network & Nature Protection Act Spatial development strategy Infrastructure and Space Environmental vision Overijssel & Catalogue Area Characteristics Nature Scenery Act Spatial planning act Environmental regulation Overijssel Environmental Act (in preparation, will enter into force in 2018) As Table 3 shows several relations between the diverse governmental levels can be identified. The ELC principles are clearly stated in the former Belvedere policy and the National Spatial Strategy. From the perspective of water, the Room for the River policy and the Room for the Vecht policy can be related with each other. Given the European level, several national policies can be related to this level. The national level on its turn, can be related to the regional level, which is most used by the municipal level as the outcomes of the interviews have proven. 36

55 5. NORMS, VALUES AND IDENTIY IN PLANNING AND MANAGING THE LANDSCAPE As the approach towards landscape of the province of Overijssel shows, the landscape exists of different layers all of which serve a different purpose. These different layers all have different groups of people who have an interest in one particular layer or multiple. When dealing with landscape planning and management, policymakers need to take care of these interests and corresponding norms and values. 5.1 Norms and values In figure 17 the relationship between norms, values and the attitude towards landscape can be reviewed. As figure 17 shows norms Figure 17: Relationship between norms, values and attitudes towards the landscape (After Ives & Kendal, page 81) have an impact on peoples values. People can assign value to a landscape by experiencing the landscape. These values lead to considerations concerning the landscape, people can therefore decide whether they like the landscape or not. Values themselves have an impact on the beliefs of people. These beliefs are formed by the knowledge people possess. Indirectly norms, values and knowledge have an impact on peoples beliefs and thus on the landscape they prefer (Ives & Kendal, 2013). As Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) have argued, landscape preferences have to do with the way a landscape is experienced (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 in Hospers 2013). Oueslati and Salanié (2011) view landscape as an area in which recreational, residential and productive activities find place and facilities are located. Based upon these different activities and facilities the following groups can be identified: residents, entrepreneurs and recreationists. These groups have different views and interests considering landscape, which might sometimes be conflicting. Van der Valk (2014) stresses the need people feel to identify with the landscape. Identities play a major role when dealing with landscape, which can be used in participatory processes, research and new designs. When dealing with norms and values people give towards a landscape, identity is an important issue. Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) distinguish different identities people can identify in a landscape. In case a planning or management decision is about the cultural-geographical identity of the landscape, it is likely that residents, entrepreneurs and recreationists will agree upon a decision made by a municipality. In case of a decision concerning the existential-cultural identity of a landscape, a group of people with the same norms and values would agree with the decision. If a personal factor is included in the landscape identity, conflicts will arise inevitably. Attitudes towards the manner of 37

56 landscape planning and management will differ and it is up to policymakers to find a way of planning and managing the landscape in a way which is best suited with the landscape and the inhabitants of that landscape. It is important to both keep spatial and social factors in mind when creating a policy, since these factors have an influence on the way in which people value landscapes. 5.2 The periurban landscape Considering the attitude of residents of cities towards the periurban landscape, Ives and Kendal (2013) have conducted a research. The periurban landscape is what Gehl (2010) would call an edge. Whereas edges are interesting areas, people like to come often and recreate, it could be expected the periurban area is attractive to residents of the city. Ives and Kendal (2013) state that periurban areas are undergoing a rapid transformation, due to urban sprawl. Some landscape elements in the periurban areas are protected by spatial planners in zoning plans. Whereas the protection and management is only focussed on some landscape elements, it are mainly the urban residents who can be hold responsible for the appearance of the city edge. It are their preferences which are visible in the periurban area. Spatial planners should therefore understand the preferences, norms and values of the urban residents in order to effectively manage the periurban area (Ives & Kendal, 2013). Values urban residents assign towards the periurban area are broader than the values usually considered in policy documents. Ives and Kendal (2013) laid emphasis on values related to: culture, nature, education, aesthetic values of periurban agricultural land, the availability of food, food security and native flora and fauna. Culture, nature, education and aesthetic values of periurban agricultural land are about the multifunctional use of the landscape. Food availability and security are about the nearby presence of food production. Multifunctional use of land, food production and native flora and fauna are highly valued in periurban areas and the rural landscape. The values assigned by urban residents towards the periurban area, shows similarities with the general values assigned towards rural areas (Ives & Kendal, 2013). Box 5: Periurban areas in the municipality of Zwolle The main infrastructure of the municipality of Zwolle, runs through the city. As a result the city edges are free of roads and a green area can be identified. The National Landscape IJsseldelta is almost directly located too the city. Both the river IJssel and Vecht are (partially) located near the city edges. Furthermore, agricultural activities find place in these periurban areas. All together these diverse land use types, nature, water, agriculture and recreation opportunities can be identified, create a diverse periurban area where inhabitants and visitors could enjoy themselves (Gemeente Zwolle, 2008). 5.3 Adding economic value to the landscape One of the major issues concerning landscape is the valuation. Landscape can be viewed from an economic point of view or as a public good. The cost-benefit approach could be used to assign economic values to different landscapes or landscape elements (Oueslati & Salanié, 2011). In some cases it might be possible to give elements in the landscape an economic function. The landscape is preserved, so residents and recreationists can enjoy the landscape, while entrepreneurs can make money of a landscape element. Janssen et al. (2014) point towards the positive effect heritage might have on activities in the landscape. If entrepreneurs make use of these opportunities, recreationists and/or residents are able to enjoy these places even more. Making heritage suitable for a socio- 38

57 economic function has become more interesting, since sustainability matters more. However, when dealing with planning practices the link between history of places, heritage and future plans is only little made (Janssen et al., 2014). In the provincial environmental vision of Overijssel sustainability and spatial quality are the main goals (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). As mentioned in the previous chapter sustainability is hardly ever mentioned in the provincial environmental regulation (Provincie Overijssel, 2014). The province of Overijssel is in favour of an integrated approach, emphasising the sustainability and spatial quality of the different regions (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). Plottu and Plottu (2012) acknowledge that it is difficult take care of the landscape when letting residents and producers participate in spatial planning issues. Residents and producers (recreationists as well) view the landscape as a public good, to which no economic value has to be assigned. Landscape is perceived as something public (Antrop, 2005). During the interview with the policy officer of the municipality of Deventer it was noted that people are not used to paying for landscape. She illustrated this with the example of a parking ticket. When people go to the city, they pay for a parking ticket. However, for landscape this initiative is not there. As she points out the government has taken care for the landscape for such a long time, that people are used to this system and are not fond of paying for the landscape. 5.4 Managing the landscape A landscape management approach can be based upon profitability, strategy or identity. These options lead to different choices related to the landscape. These different options come forward in the management and planning approach for the landscape Plottu and Plottu (2012) suggest. Three different approaches are suggested, namely: facilities needed for present generations, resources needed in order to develop the landscape and elements of the past which have an influence on the appearance of the landscape. Facilities needed for present generations focus mainly on the option of profitability. This type of planning and management is focussed on the current status of the landscape and focusses on the short term. Resources needed in order to develop the landscape goes a step further. In this approach strategic decisions related to the landscape are made. The landscape is seen as something that is dynamic. Developments of the past and the current landscape are taken in mind when creating several options for the future landscape. Changes in landscapes are valued and fit within the community s needs. Van der Valk (2014) points towards a preferred development within the cultural heritage. Focus needs to shift from preserving the past, towards conscious management of the cultural heritage. The last approach, of Plottu and Plottu (2012), deals with elements of the past which have an influence on the appearance of the landscape. In this approach landscape can often be identified as a central element within a region. The inhabitants of this region feel attached to their region. The identity is based upon past and present landscapes and developments. These landscapes and developments play a role when making choices for the future landscape. This is what Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) would call a group identity. When dealing with landscape planning and management on a local level, participation is important. Whereas landscape is something that is perceived as public, letting people participate in the decision making about landscape planning and management might be difficult. Landscape is something that has no clearly defined economic value and interests might differ. Jacobs (2006) acknowledges the fact that public participation concerning landscape and environmental quality can be very difficult, since groups of people have different interest and therefore value other landscape elements. 39

58 Selman (2006) argues that multifunctional landscapes are likely to appear. Planning and managing the landscape has become more integrated, so functions within the landscape are likely to merge. As a result policies and zoning plans concerning the landscape have become more integrated as well. This can be seen in the environmental vision of the province of Overijssel as well, whereas policymakers tried to come up with an integral vision upon the landscape (Provincie Overijssel, 2013a). Thus, some people refer to landscape as a physical entity produced by earth processes. Others see it as a social construction charged with cultural associations. It can be a thing of beauty or horror on a framed canvas. It can be a planner s spatial frame of reference. It can be recorded from a satellite or modelled from the perspective of an insect. It has been described as a hybrid nexus of nature and culture in which dualities between people and their host environment dissolve. It is lived in, visited, cherished, protected and exploited. As a visually comprehended and perhaps relatively self-contained environmental unit, it can be used as a framework for analysis, synthesis, policy development and plan implementation. It is an area where different groups contest the meanings and significance of historical associations. It is a place of production, consumption, and military engagement. (Selman, 2006, page 13). This quote of Selman (2006) illustrates the many different views people can have upon the landscape. It can be related to Hospers (2013) as well, since he states that people are able to identify themselves with landscapes on multiple levels. These identities can exist next to each other, which makes it difficult to set planning and management goals. Selman (2006) also points towards the value landscapes have. To inhabitants of a landscape, the landscape often means a lot. Part of peoples identity can be deduced from this landscape, as well as people give identity to the landscape they inhabit (Simon, 2004). For outsiders it is harder to see the value of a landscape they have never been to before (Selman, 2006). Referring back to the different groups Oueslati and Salanié (2011) distinguish, it can be stated that a landscape possesses great values for residents of the landscape. Recreationists and/or producers from outside the landscape might value the landscape less. Another issue when dealing with landscape values is the fact that values of the current landscape are sometimes only noted and appreciated when the landscape scenery is threatened by developments. For policymakers and inhabitants of a landscape it is important to acknowledge every landscape, whether a landscape is outstanding or everyday (Selman, 2006). 5.5 Remarks considering norms and values in landscape planning and management It is not possible to give a detailed scheme of norms and values that are at stake when dealing with landscape planning and management. Jacobs (2006) holds three different perspectives considering landscape. Norms and values play a role in these landscape perspectives. In the matterscape perspective it is stressed that there is no ultimate landscape. This is in line with the perspective on landscape Selman (2006) has. According to Selman (2006) many different perspectives on landscape can be identified. However, there is not an ultimate landscape which has the same meaning to everybody. Jacobs (2006) links the absence of an ultimate definition of landscape, with the norms 40

59 and values people have. Whether a landscape matters to people, depends on the norms and values a person holds. Norms and values can guide people in the search for a landscape they prefer. Although norms and values provide some guidance, it is not easy to identify a powerscape. Secondly, the powerscape perspective can be identified. This perspective is about a landscape that is appreciated and valid for a group of people. Norms can be assigned to all people who are part of this group. Social interactions play a role in the norms people hold. Last, in the mindscape perspective values and stories are the most important. How people perceive, experience and value the landscape can be connected to the mindscape. Planning and managing the landscape requires alterations in the powerscape. People s perception, experiences and values considering the landscape are partially formed in the mindscape, while planning and managing the landscape find place in the powerscape. It is not possible to convert experiences of people to a landscape policy, since experiences cannot be translated into landscape guidelines (Jacobs, 2006). It is not possible to state which norms and values of certain groups of people are at stake when dealing with landscape planning and management. Norms form the partial basis for values, values can be related to the identity people give towards a landscape and deduce from the landscape. As Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) show landscape identities can be distinguished in group identities or an individual identity. In case individual identities come to matter in planning and managing the landscape, conflicts between people will arise. It is up to policymakers to deal with these conflicts in a way that satisfies the inhabitants of the landscape. The ELC (Council of Europe, 2000a; 2000b) and diverse researchers (Baas et al., 2011; Plottu & Plottu, 2012; Vervloet, 2007) acknowledge the importance of participation when dealing with landscape. Different groups will have different areas within the landscape where their norms and values are rated as high or low. In many cases the choice that is made in planning and managing the landscape, depends on the current land use functions. In the city and periurban areas expansions related to dwelling and production are in general more accepted. If the same expansion would find place in an agricultural landscape it is likely inhabitants of this landscape would protest, since the values of the agricultural landscape are in danger (Ives & Kendal, 2011). When landscape values people appreciate are endangered, people come to realize what these values mean for them and the landscape (Selman, 2006). 41

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61 6. BIOGRAPHY OF THE LANDSCAPE IN PLANNING AND MANAGING THE LANDSCAPE In the Netherlands the landscape biography concept is introduced by Kolen (1993 in Elerie and Spek, 2010). The main idea of this concept is that landscapes possess a biography as well as people and objects (Kolen, 1993 in Elerie & Spek; Kopytoff, 1986; Samuels, 1979). Kopytoff (1986) stressed the importance of manufacturing a biography of cultural objects. Combining these ideas, a landscape biography can be used when planning and managing the landscape. Different stories the landscape possess can be told by making use of the landscape biography concept. In landscape planning and management, the landscape biography concept can be used to tell the past and current story of the landscape. A landscape biography can act as a starting point to give guidelines for planning and managing the landscape on a local level. To what extent the landscape biography approach has been used on a local level will be discussed in this chapter. 6.1 Examples of regions in which landscape biography has been used actively A programme in which the landscape biography concept had a central role In the PDL/BBO programme biography of landscape had a connecting role. Connections between research and practical implementations were made in several project areas (Van der Valk, 2010; Van der Valk, 2014). The Oer-IJ, Drentsche Aa, Southern Netherlands and Northern Netherlands are regions where landscape biographies have been used to tell the story of the past landscapes (Elerie & Spek, 2010; Van der Valk, 2010; Van der Valk, 2014). For the location of these regions, see figure 18. In the Oer-IJ region, figure 18, archaeological-historical values are important. To establish an accurate biography of the landscape, scientists and policymakers worked together. During the Oer-IJ project scientists and policymakers cooperated to make an inventory of the Oer-IJ landscape. Although parties were sometimes frustrated, this cooperation resulted in an agenda in which the landscape biography holds a firm position. This biography roughly sketches the landscape of the Oer-IJ region over four thousand years. Special attention was given to the archaeological-historical landscape elements (Van der Valk, 2014). National Park the Drentsche Aa, figure 18, has been subject of the PDL/BBO Figure 18: Areas where the PDL/BBO programme was executed (Van der Valk, 2014, page 164) programme as well. During a period of five years scientists with cultural and ecological backgrounds worked together. Their main task was to apply the landscape biography concept in planning practices 43

62 on a local level. In order to fulfil this task residents, policymakers, designers and other interested stakeholders were invited to participate. Besides the landscape biography other projects were carried out as well, although landscape biography has been the main guiding principle. The results of the diverse landscape biographies that were established are implemented in the regional policy of the Drentsche Aa. Researchers worked together with policymakers to imply the biography of landscape. The biography of landscape served as an element to make planning and management decisions in the region more argued (Elerie & Spek, 2010). 6.2 Past, present and future landscapes in the landscape biography concept History matters Marcucci (2000) argues history of the landscape is essential when dealing with landscape planning. In order to deal with changing landscapes, it is important to deal with the geography and history of the landscape. Spatial planners should thereby not only focus on the history of the landscape, but rather view landscape as a whole. History of the landscape is essential to consider, since changing values of the inhabitants of a landscape and changing patterns in the landscape hold a major role in the way a landscape is built-up and experienced. History as an instrument to guide planning and management issues within the landscape. A landscape can be described in a more complete way, which may lead to better augmented long-term planning decisions (Marcucci, 2000). Not only history matters when dealing with landscape planning and management. Sustainability is another important issue when planning and managing the landscape. In 2006 Dutch national and provincial landscape policies, were focussed on the preservation of several landscape elements. Landscape and its inhabitants were central in these policies, arguing for making use of the landscape in a sustainable way (van der Valk and Bloemers, 2006). As Luiten (2013) noted the national landscape policy has disappeared. However, most provinces are still taking care of landscape policy (Luiten, 2013) Immortal landscapes As many researchers have acknowledged, for example Antrop (2005) and Vervloet (2007), landscapes change. It lays in the nature of a landscape to change through time. As a result landscape biographies change through time as well. Vervloet et al. (2010) state that:... a landscape biography is a never ending story (page 136). When planning and managing the landscape it is therefore important to consider not only the past landscapes, but consider the impact actions might have on the landscape as well. In land use planning, movement of people, supplies and information has become more important. As a result of this increased movement, people are not so bound to specific areas anymore. Policymakers can make use of the landscape biography approach to deal with this shift in living. Emphasis can be laid on diverse themes, like culture history or the development of the landscape. Whereas a landscape biography deals with both the past and present landscape, important places within the landscape can be identified. These outcomes can be used in planning, managing and promoting the landscape. A landscape biography not only provides policymakers with a starting for planning and management activities. It might as well show unexpected effects of spatial interventions of the past. Policymakers could benefit from a dual approach by focussing on the current and future situation of the landscape as well as the past situation (Kolen, 2007). 44

63 When making use of landscape biography as a concept in planning and managing the landscape, the immortality of the landscape should be considered. A landscape is something that will always exist, it never ends. This can be difficult to deal with considering landscape planning and management (Antrop, 2005; Van der Valk & Bloemers, 2006; Vervloet, 2007). Marcucci (2000) argues to state a long-term view on the landscape in policies. In order to create a vision upon the future landscape, the landscape of the past hundred years is relevant. According to him a policy has more chance to be successful if the main events of the past hundred years and a long-term view upon the future landscape are taken in mind (Marcucci, 2000). Every generation adds elements to the landscape, meanings of landscapes might differ between older and younger generations. Heritage can serve as a connecting factor between different generations. Policymakers have to deal with these differences in order to plan and manage the landscape in a sustainable way. For policymakers it might be difficult to include the heritage of a landscape in the landscape policy. Other functions and natural values play a role in the landscape and decision making as well (Van der Valk & Bloemers, 2006) Participation Vervloet et al. (2010) have distinguished three different perspectives, present inhabitants, previous inhabitants and the narrative of the landscape, from which a landscape biography can be composed. When dealing with landscape planning and management it is likely the perspective of present inhabitants and users is present in local policies. The case study municipalities all included a form or multiple forms of participation when creating their landscape policies. Policy officers of the case study municipalities mentioned the following forms of participation: evenings inhabitants were invited to discuss elements of the landscape policy with officers of the municipality were in all municipalities held. Furthermore, advisory groups have been established. These groups advised and thought along with the municipalities. Visitors of these evenings and members of the advisory groups live within the municipality. By means of participation the perspective of the present inhabitants and users is represented in the landscape policies of the municipalities. The perspective of past inhabitants and users and the narrative perspective are not included in the policies of the municipalities. This can be related to the local level and the financial struggle to plan and manage the landscape properly. Integrating cultural heritage in planning was first introduced, in the Netherlands, by the Belvedere programme. Thereby focus is not only laid on individual buildings or elements within the landscape, but on historical landscapes as a whole as well. Since, these landscapes possess local identities, it is important that these landscapes are part of the landscape planning and management approach. If possible the users of the landscape should act as stakeholders, so they feel involved with the landscape (van Londen, 2006). A landscape biography is well suited to let people participate in managing the landscape they live, work or recreate in. It can therefore be related to realizing the aims of the ELC (Council of Europe, 2000a). As Van Londen (2006) argues if a landscape biography is carried out in a way that is appealing to people. People can feel inspired by this biography and take care of managing landscapes of the past. Features that are clearly visible in the landscape biography might attribute to the identity of a landscape and thus a region. These elements can be used by policymakers when creating policies. Making use of historical information helps to make elements of the past fit within the present landscape (Van Londen, 2006). 45

64 6.3 Use of landscape biography on a local level Roymans, Gerritsen, van der Heijden, Bosma and Kolen (2010) argue landscape biography can serve as a guiding principle in heritage management and spatial planning practices. Heritage deserves a special place within managing and planning the landscape, since inhabitants of a landscape form part of their identity based upon cultural-historical elements. However, a landscape biography should not only focus on heritage. Other themes should be discussed as well, whereas a landscape biography is intended to give a biography of the landscape considering a broad range of themes. What choices policymakers will make, based upon the biography of the landscape, depends on the composition of the landscape biography (Roymans et al., 2010). Landscape biography is a useful instrument to use on a local level. How inhabitants used, organized and interpreted the landscape in the past and present will become visible and can serve as a source of inspiration considering landscape planning and management. Identity cannot be seen separately from landscape biography. Landscape has always served as a source of inspiration for individuals and communities to construct their identity. Combining identity and landscape biography provides opportunities to let inhabitants be involved with the management of heritage (Roymans et al., 2010). Whereas heritage management has been focussed on ideas and knowledge of only a small group of professionals (Vervloet, 2007; Roymans et al., 2010). The landscape biography approach provides heritage manager with a concept that gives local inhabitants and other interested stakeholders an opportunity to participate in the heritage management process (Roymans et al., 2010). Landscape should never be compared to a blank page. Inherent to every place settlements, buildings, road patterns and archaeological sites alike is a long and complex history. What we need is a combined effort by archaeologists, geographers, art-historians and planners for the sake of a truly careful management of the past, with an eye on future generations. Images of the past help us determine our past and present individuality. (Van der Valk & Bloemers, 2006, page 30). This quote illustrates the importance to look at the history of the landscape as well. Landscapes have been, are and will always exist. In order to plan and manage the landscape in a successful way, the past landscapes should be considered as well as the current and future landscape. In order to create a full biography of the landscape, stakeholders with diverse backgrounds should be able to cooperate in the designation of a landscape biography. 46

65 Box 6: Landscape biography of a young heath reclamation landscape in the municipality of Deventer Figure 19: Part of a young heath reclamation landscape located in Deventer (Van den Berg et al., 2011, page 68) In figure 19 an example of a minor landscape biography of the municipality of Deventer is given. This landscape is located in the young heath reclamation landscape and some estates are located in this area. From the first half of the 19 th century the heath lands were reclaimed and the land was used for agricultural purposes (Van den Berg et al., 2011). In figure 19 a shift in land use forms can be noted, whereas in 1917 woods and heathland covered most of the areas, in 1991 the main land use form was agriculture. 47

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67 7. LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT ON A LOCAL LEVEL AND ITS RELATION TO THE ELC 7.1 Planning and managing the landscape in the case study municipalities In order to assess the landscape policies of the municipalities of Dalfsen, Raalte, Deventer and Zwolle the checklist, as mentioned in the third chapter, has been completed for the diverse policy documents. An example of an assessment is included in Annex II. The other assessments can be found in the interview and checklist report. This chapter consists of an analysis of the policy documents related to the diverse concepts. As a last step a link between the concepts, policies and the ELC is made Landscape development plan A landscape development plan is a plan focussed on the landscape of a municipality. The vision upon the landscape of the municipality is explained and defended in this document. Landscape qualities hold a special role in this plan, whereas the current qualities provide a basis for future developments. All municipalities let inhabitants participate during the construction of the document. Scenarios have been used to discuss the content of the plan with the inhabitants of the municipalities (Gemmeke et al., 2008; Ten Cate, 2010; Von Wersch, Koerhuis, Huls & Bontje, 2009). Dalfsen made a landscape development plan, only focussed on the municipality of Dalfsen (Von Wersch et al., 2009). The municipalities of Raalte and Deventer created a landscape development plan, together with Olst-Wijhe (Gemmeke et al., 2008). The municipality of Zwolle also cooperated with other municipalities, namely the municipalities of Zwartewaterland and Kampen (Ten Cate, 2010). Diverse topics are treated in these landscape development plans. Comparing these policy documents with each other, a focus on diverse landscape types can be distinguished. Every landscape has its own qualities and these qualities are used as a starting point for future developments (Gemmeke et al., 2008; Ten Cate, 2010; Von Wersch et al., 2009). The focus on different landscape types is visible in the interviews as well. The policy officers all mentioned the diverse landscape types as one of the qualities of their municipalities landscape. Unique, I think, is the presence of eight different landscape types around Zwolle. The variety is unique. In the Netherlands, you will not see it very often (Policy officer of the municipality of Zwolle, interviewed on 4 July 2014). This quote shows the presence of diverse landscape types and thus diverse landscapes is considered as a quality of the municipality of Zwolle. The other interviewees made similar remarks about the qualities of the landscape of the municipality they work for. The diverse landscape types form the starting point of the different landscape development plans. However, the municipalities use these landscape types differently in their planning and management strategy. The municipality of Dalfsen explains for every landscape type: the characteristics of the landscape (focussed on the aesthetics, culture history, ecology and economy), future developments, possibilities and threats. These analyses are used in order to plan and manage the landscape. The main goals of the municipality are to improve the landscape scenery and the preservation and recovery of cultural-historical valuable elements (Von Wersch et al., 2009). 49

68 Box 7: Different landscape types in Dalfsen In figure 20 the different landscape types of the municipality of Dalfsen are named. As follows from this figure the municipa -lity of Dalfsen has identified seven different landscape landsca -pes. First, the peat reclamation landscape is characterized by Its wide open fields and the straight road pattern. In this area there are almost no height differences. Agriculture is the main land use form in this area. The wide view is threatened by the plans to locate windmills in this area. Second, the young heath reclamation landscape is characterized by its regular pattern of agricultural fields and roads. The agricultural fields are wide and open and so is the view. This landscape is an area where geese and other winter visitors are welcome. Several parcels in this landscape are marked for these birds. Third, the open fields landscape, the eldest built-up areas can be found in this landscape. The village of Dalfsen, white area in the middle of figure 20, is clearly visible. Around Dalfsen the landscape is the most urbanized. Furthermore, height differences can be noted and a small-scale landscape can be identified. By the small-scale woods, built-up areas and use of green plants a small-scale landscape can be identified. Whereas the separate elements are well functioning, the municipality likes to make the edges of the village more connec Figure 20: Landscape ty -ted with the surrounding landscape. Fourth, the river Vecht and the river -pes of the municipality -banks can be identified. An area in which water storage and recreation of Dalfsen (Von Wersch et are the main land use forms. The straight river will be slowly transformed al., 2009, page 8) to its natural flow, which creates opportunities to make the landscape and culture history better visible. Fifth, the swamp reclamation landscape can be identified. Unlike the other reclamation landscapes, this landscape is already reclaimed in the Middle Ages. The main land use form is again agriculture. Due to technological improvements in the agricultural business, it becomes harder to integrate the businesses with the landscape. Sixth, the forest and estates landscape is identified. This area is located near the river Vecht, as follows from figure 20. In this area culture history is well preserved, although it is sometimes not accessible since several areas are private property of the estate owners. Due to the natural environment many different types of flora and fauna can be identified in this landscape. Last, the open grounds can be identified. This landscape is characterized by a half open landscape. Woods and open fields can both be identified in this landscape. Furthermore, small height differences can be noted in this landscape (Von Wersch et al., 2009). The municipalities of Raalte, Deventer and Olst-Wijhe made use of the landscape types in another way. These municipalities have divided the landscape in landscape types as well. Instead of an analysis of the different landscape types, the municipalities have identified landscape characteristics according to the diverse landscape types. These landscape characteristics are seen as the baseline of the landscape development plan. To plan and manage the landscape, different functions of the landscape have been distinguished. These functions are: water, nature, agriculture, living and working, periurban areas and recreation. New developments have to preserve, strengthen or 50