Eiffel Tower new form in old city; Washington Monument old form in new city Today: look more carefully at the meaning of words This is not a course

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3 Eiffel Tower new form in old city; Washington Monument old form in new city Today: look more carefully at the meaning of words This is not a course in ancient, structures but we will look at them because of the relevant influence to the way modern builders thought about form Economy: connected to the social context; how structures are built Elegance: form and symbolic nature; judgments made comparatively This lecture gives sense of how we judge structures. These are relative judgments 3

4 Ask the question to the students to answer as they walk in the class and get settled down. See Aatish s notes for calculations in file Additional Eiffel Tower Clicker Questions.pptx (validated by MG) Answer 12 Image: Benh Lieu Song, Wikimedia Commons ( 4

5 If all the iron in the Eiffel Tower was melted into a ball, how big (in diameter) would that ball be? 5

6 See Aatish s notes for calculations in file Additional Eiffel Tower Clicker Questions.pptx (validated by MG) Answer: air 6

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8 How does the Eiffel get to be so light? One trick was using a series of trusses inside trusses, so he s not using a whole lot of material. So we ll study more the form of the Eiffel Tower and the design considerations involved today. 8

9 We ll start off my contrasting these two structures: the Eiffel Tower and the Washington Monument. These two structures are representing nations. The Eiffel Tower illustrated how France was welcoming the millennium, and in Washington D.C. they chose the Washington Monument. Let s look at these two structures in more detail. Took these 2 structures to celebrate the millennium. Indication of importance of these 2 monuments Image: Los Angeles Times, January 1,

10 In 1889 the Eiffel Tower is built, not too long after the Brooklyn Bridge. It s made out of iron, a new material from the industrial revolution. It stands about over 1,000 ft tall. A huge structure for this period of time, a huge engineering accomplishment. In 1884, a few years before, the Washington Monument was completed standing at about half the height of the Eiffel tower, but it was a very different structure. Symbolically it is also very different in meeting. You have France, a very historic country building in a new material of iron and in contrast, you have a very old type of structure (an obelisk) in a very new country and city of Washington D.C. When the Washington Monument was completed, it was the tallest manmade structure, soon to be surpassed by the Eiffel Tower. In France, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest structure next to the towers of the bridge, Millau Viaduct. Washington Monument US capital (new city) Oldest known form for monument there is Tallest structure in the world when competed in 1884 at 555 ft. Eiffel Tower French Capital (old city) newest form same height as an 81 storey building. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to assume the title of the tallest human made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years, until the Chrysler Building in New York City was built in Because of the addition of the antenna atop the Eiffel Tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Not including broadcast antennae, it is the second tallest structure in France, after the Millau Viaduct. WM image from monument didn t sink afterearthquake/ Image of ET from 10

11 Although this slide is titled social, they both fall into the perspectives of social and symbolic. Symbolically, they both represent the rise of democracy, both being built at the end of revolutions. The Eiffel Tower was built as a way for France to make its presence known as an industrial power. E Pluribus Unum meaning out of many, one also applies to the Washington Monument, a single structure made out of many pieces of stone. This is also the case in the Eiffel Tower, where one main tower is made up from multiple trusses. The social context that led to the construction of these strong symbolic structures is the end of revolutions that ended the power of monarchies and gave birth to democracy. Of course, in the case of the ET, we also have the IR, and its new material iron. The construction of these structures also falls under the social umbrella and here what we see also has a strong symbolic meaning as well: "E Pluribus Unum," or "Out of Many, One," the motto of the US. The motto refers to people, but here we can apply it to structure as well. Both structures are made out of many pieces, that when put together built the greatest structure of its time. Wrought iron = ET 11

12 An Obelisk traditionally was built out of one huge piece of stone. Here is an example of an Obelisk in France, 75ft tall, which is about the height limit from being made from a single piece of stone. The Washington Monument required many pieces of stone. Image: David P. Billington It used to be that obelisk were built out of one piece of stone, but to reach the height of the WM that would not be possible. Obelisk of Ramses II, 1500 BC Brought to France from Egypt by Napoleon Sat horizontally for some time, but was erected around the time of the painting in the Place de la Concorde About t he the limit that can be built with one piece of stone Obelisk form like the Washington Monument 12

13 There was a design competition to design the Washington Monument, hosted by a private organization to honor George Washington and be a symbol of the new country. In 1845 they selected Robert Mills to design the Washington Monument. This image was the vision for his design which was 600 ft tall, not too far from what was actually built. It had 100 ft columns surrounding that obelisk. This was quite an extensive endeavor. In 1833, the Washington National Monument Society, a private organization, formed to fund and build a monument to the first president that would be "unparalleled in the world." The Society solicited for donations and designs for a decade, settling on a design by Robert Mills in Mills' design called for a 600 foot Egyptian style obelisk ringed by thirty 100 foot columns. The design was audacious, ambitious, and expensive, creating numerous complications during its construction. Image: Mills, Robert: Washington Monument. Photograph. Britannica Online for Kids. Web. 25 May < >. 13

14 Here is a rendering from Robert Mills, this is how he envisioned it to stand in Washington D.C. Rendering as it was conceived by Mills in the 1830s Image: Gutheim, Frederick. The Federal City: Plans and Realities. p

15 Washington at the time was a very agricultural society, does not look anything like it does today (same as Manhattan for the Brooklyn Bridge). Image: Reps, John W. Washington on View, The Nation s Capital since This is how Washington looked in the 1830s Not much of a city, largely agricultural Capitol being built in distance 15

16 Here we see the capitol being constructed. In the background we have the monument. Image: Reps, John W. Washington on View, The Nation s Capital since Capitol in 1865, at end of Civil War ( ), before dome is constructed In the background is, which you can t see, but the next slide shows is (the partly completed Washington Monument) 16

17 This is the Washington Monument under construction. The construction began in 1848 and by 1854 it had reached a height of 156 ft above ground. However, this private organization had a change in the administration and funding was lost. The construction stopped, and resumed 22 years later when the Congress decided to assume the duty of building and funding the monument. Image: Caemmerer, Paul. A Manual on the Origin and Development of Washington. p. 202 Despite difficulties raising funds, construction began on the Washington Monument in By 1854, the monument had reached a height of 156 feet above ground, but a turn of events stalled construction. The private organization that was raising funds went bankrupt due to a controversial change in administration. With the substructure completed, the builders then proceeded to the above ground marble structure, 55 feet, 1.5 inches square at the base, using a system of pulleys, block and tackle systems, and a mounted derrick to hoist and place the stones, inching the structure skyward. 17

18 By a joint resolution passed on July 5, 1876, Congress assumed the duty of funding and building the Washington Monument. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, led by Lt. Col. Thomas Lincoln Casey, was responsible for directing and completing the work. Casey's first task was to strengthen the foundation of the monument (image on right), which he determined was inadequate for the structure as it was designed (danger of leaning). Image: Source Unknown 18

19 Finally when it was complete, they put at the top a cap out of aluminum (most expensive material at the time) in Image: Reps, John W. Washington on View, The Nation s Capital since pg. 201 Here is the cap being put on in 1884 Made of the most valuable metal they could easily find: Aluminum Inscribed on the aluminum cap, notable names and dates in the monument's construction are recalled, and on the east face, facing the rising sun, the Latin words "Laus Deo," which translate to, "Praise be to God." 19

20 If you look at the Monument, notice the change in color about 1/3 of the way up. This is when the private funds ran out, and the army corp of engineers took over the construction. The quarry used to build the original base ran out, so they had to find another quarry to build the remainder of the Washington Monument. Image: David P. Billington Tower as it looks today Harder to see it now due to rehabilitation, but should think of it as two towers See line where it got built up to When Army Corp of Engineers took over, could not find the same stone. The original quarry near Baltimore used for the original construction was no longer available after 22 years of intermission. Now that line stands as a symbol of its history of construction. 20

21 Let s move on to Paris. The World Fair was hosted in 1889, and France needed a boost of confidence. They used to be the world power in the 18th and lost that reputation to Britain. The 1889 fair represented, in addition, France s desire to recapture something of her 18 th century glory. In contrast to Britain, which in the 1880s could still consider itself the greatest nation on earth, the French felt defeated, depressed, dishonored. Surpassed economically by Britain France could only look back to the period before 1814 when it had been the greatest European power (T&B p 60). France was known for being a place of great artistry and culture. However, Eiffel wanted to create a symbol to represent France as an industrial power, as a country of engineers, designers and builders of bridges and towers. His idea was to bring this new image of France to complement the image that it already had. Image: Public Domain ( n_universelle_de_1889.jpg) Poster: Tower, centerpiece of the centennial fair (celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution) The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that profoundly affected French and modern history, marking the decline of powerful monarchies and churches and the rise of democracy and nationalism. 21

22 Here is the tower that Eiffel Tower, called then as the 300 meter tower. He provides other scaled famous structures to give people a sense of scale that this tower was an extremely tall structure. Image: Public Domain ( A competition to build a 300 m tower He called it the Tower of 300 m, not the Eiffel Tower Shows how incredibly tall it is: Notre Dame, Statue of Liberty, Arc de Triumph, City Hall (politicians at most unstable point) Eiffel was a builder and designer Eiffel s tower clearly was best in competition, but the high art world signed a petition to not build this horrible thing. So, Eiffel told the mayor not to worry, he d finance it but that he d get concessions for 20 years (he keeps fees for admission). The idea was to take it apart and bring it to his hometown in Dijon, but because of the importance Paris kept the Tower In first year, Eiffel got back ~3/4 of capital investment 22

23 The high art world hated it and signed a petition not to build it. Such an industrial tower did not attract that. Eiffel offered to finance the tower for just 20 years, and that it would be taken down and transported to Dijon to be rebuilt, and that he would receive the admission fees/concessions for the 20 years. It turns out that just in the first year alone, Eiffel got back ¾ of the original investment that he put into it. A competition to build a 300 m tower He called it the Tower of 300 m, not the Eiffel Tower Shows how incredibly tall it is: Notre Dame, Statue of Liberty, Arc de Triumph, City Hall (politicians at most unstable point) Eiffel was a builder and designer Eiffel s tower clearly was best in competition, but the high art world signed a petition to not build this horrible thing. So, Eiffel told the mayor not to worry, he d finance it but that he d get concessions for 20 years (he keeps fees for admission). The idea was to take it apart and bring it to his hometown in Dijon, but because of the importance Paris kept the Tower In first year, Eiffel got back ~3/4 of capital investment 23

24 Here is the world fair attendance over the years. In the year million people went into the Eiffel Tower. The amount of people entering the Eiffel Tower has gone up exponentially since the opening, so it still remains today a large attraction. It was obviously not taken down after 20 years because it was a huge success. Image: David P. Billington Economic idea major world s fairs in the 19 th c. environ = about/around Paris, 1889 by far most attendance and almost all attendance focused on Tower 2 million visited the tower 24

25 Here it is being built out of many pieces. He used jacks at the four legs of the tower to adjust the orientation of the tower during construction to make sure that it was straight. Eiffel had to be just as apt a designer and a builder in order to design a good form and make sure that it could be built. Image left: Source Unknown. Image right: World History Archive ( being used to adjust the mountings of the eiffel tower paris france/) Built of many pieces Could continuously adjust the jacks so that the tower remained straight during construction If it moved, the jacks could be reactivated Safety factor for endurance 25

26 Here it is again, another image of the tower under construction where we can see the transparency of it. Image right: Source Uknown (Braibant p. 49 or Elevator Systems of the Eiffel Tower p. 7) 26

27 Georges Seurat was one of the artists inspired by the tower (much like those inspired by the Brooklyn Bridge). This pointillism piece made out of many little points mimics the construction process of how the Eiffel Tower was built from many small pieces. Image left: Public Domain ( Work is a work of art, but also inspiration for painters, artists, etc. Built out of small pieces of iron < pointalism Artist: Georges Seurat How to we tell if it is a work of art? There are actually people who don t like Mozart, but a musician knows he s an artist How does an artist respond to the Tower? Many artists have seen Tower as fascinating, work of art Gives image of tower going up to infinity 27

28 Here is Eiffel and his son in law at the very top of the tower. Image right: tower staircase valued at with artcurial End of Tower building story Gustave Eiffel with his son in law at the top of the stairs (which you can climb if you re up to it) 28

29 We will contrast the two from the scientific point of view. One is iron (new material) built in an old city and one is stone (old material) built in a newer city. One is a cantilever and one is a column. A vertical cantilever s form is going to be controlled by wind. The column s form is dominated by gravity loads. Image: Source Unknown 29

30 As said before, here s the line where the construction changed. The one below is more of a crafted construction, and the one above is more of an engineered constructed, and we can illustrate by looking at the stresses of the self weight of the stone at the two different locations. Lower part done by craftsmen, top part done by engineers Engineers part thinner with calculation Symbol not only of e pluribus unum, (out of many, one) Many stones making one form Many people making one country Couldn t find an obelisk 550 ft high because the idea of an obelisk is to use a single piece of stone (like the one in the Place de la Concorde), but not possible at such height so its made of pieces Also, lower part represents society before the Industrial Revolution and the upper is the engineering society, the society after the industrial Revolution Less material one of the features of structural art, minimizing waste materials 30

31 Here is the cross section of the Washington Monument, and we see a change in the thickness. This occurs right at the line where the construction stop and restarted. The cross section is a view of what the monument would look like from the inside (top down) if we took a slice through. At the bottom, it is very thick and at the top there is less stone and the walls are thinner. That is an engineering decision made on the basis of stress which I will explain. Image: Source Unknown Casey reduced the thickness of the walls from 13cfeet to 9 feet between the 150 and 160 foot levels, a transition visible on a visit to the Washington Monument's interior. 31

32 If you were to take a cut anywhere along the tower and you pick up the top portion, this portion will weigh a certain amount. The weight above where I cut it (in red) is going to sit right at the cross section (in yellow). That force over the area is equal to what is known as stress. Stress is referred to as the capacity of the material. The stone has a limited amount of stress (or pressure) that it can take before it crushes. When designing, it is important to make sure that the calculated stress of the design does not exceed the stress capacity of the material. 32

33 If I were to take the same cut at the bottom, the weight of the whole tower is acting on this cross section. The force has increased significantly in this scenario which means now the area must increase significantly to keep that stress under control. That s why we have wider walls below and thinner above because of the desire to keep the stress constant throughout the structure. 33

34 The Eiffel Tower also has gravity loads to consider, which is supported by its four legs. If the Eiffel tower weights 10 tons, each leg takes 2.5 tons in each leg. You take the total weight and divide it among the four supports (at least for the Eiffel Tower given its symmetries). After knowing the amount of force each leg takes, one could calculate the amount of area needed in order to sustain that force for an acceptable stress level appropriate to the material. Image: Source unknown Tower weighs ~10,000 tonnes Each leg carries 2,500 tonnes 34

35 Ask for 3 student volunteers: One acts like wind (push on shoulders of other two). Tell the other two only that this 3 rd student will try (but not really) to push them over. Observe how they position their feet. They will likely spread them out to accommodate the pushing force. Image hidden : Tracy Huynh 35

36 Observe how the students would rather spread their legs further when anticipating greater loads, rather than keeping the feet close together. Imagine now, that the students feet are glued to the ground. As there is a wind force pushing a student, ask the student to think about which leg is in compression and which is in tension. As explained in the diagram above, as the wind is coming from the left, there is going to be an upwards reaction at the leg furthest from the wind because it is in compression, and a downwards reaction at the leg closest to the wind because it is in tension. 36

37 What is a moment? To understand that force couple we just saw, we must define the moment. As you go from the top to the bottom, the moments keep adding up. 37

38 If I were to take a cut at the very top, we have this much wind pressure and this yellow arrow here representing the moment, or turning force resisting the overturning from this amount of wind force. 38

39 As we cut lower, we have more wind force acting over more area, so the moment is greater here than it was at the previous cut. 39

40 As I go to the bottom, M3 is going to be the biggest moment. You will do these calculations in your homework assignment. 40

41 A moment diagram tells you the moment at any slice of your structure. If I take a cut along the height of the Eiffel Tower, I end up with a moment diagram that looks like the shape of the Eiffel tower. The shape of this moment diagram speaks to the efficiency of the Eiffel Tower. 41

42 Here s the shape of the moment diagram. 42

43 I took a cut here. 43

44 I took another cut here. 44

45 And another cut at the bottom. The length of these lines represent the magnitude of the moment at those points, and they vary following a parabolic relationship. 45

46 Again, the horizontal line represents the magnitude of the moment at that slice. 46

47 If we center the lines, we see that the shape of that moment is the shape of the Eiffel Tower. So Eiffel is designing the shape of the Eiffel Tower according to the moment diagram. The idea is that this form is efficient for wind forces, and wind (a horizontal load) is dominating the form here and the Washington monument is dealing with gravity so it doesn t have the same form as the Eiffel Tower. 47

48 A moment can be thought of as a tension and compression force acting at the same time (a force couple). 48

49 So we have the Eiffel tower with the wind load on the left. The relationship between the value of the moment to the tension and compression experienced by the legs is related by a value d, the distance between the tension and compression force couple. Like the demonstration, if there is a large horizontal force (i.e. Moment), spreading your feet will increase that value d, the distance between your feet, and the tension and compression felt in your legs will not be as large as it would be if your feet were close together. The largest the distance, the more moment a structure can carry. Diagram of wind loads Steady winds smallest on the ground and increases in height Eiffel approximated the load as uniform We make a conservative assumption here 49

50 Here we discuss the symbolic, many ideas which we have mentioned before. In contrast to Britain, which in the 1880s could still consider itself the greatest nation on earth, the French felt defeated, depressed, dishonored and surpassed economically by Britain. France could only look back to the period before 1814 when it had been the greatest European power, so bringing in a new form revitalized the country as a big player in the world. Whereas in D.C. the monument represents the birth of the new city, so there is this life aspect of these two structures symbolically. Image: source unknown 50

51 Here it is all lit up, this is around the time of Edison. Image: source unknown Tower lit by electricity Choice was not difficult to make Eiffel was the leading designer of metal structures of the time 1889 Eiffel invited 2 Americans to the inauguration Edison Wild Bill Cody (the Wild West fascinated him) 51

52 Here it is celebrating the bicentennial. It is a very strong icon for France. Image: National Geographic Bicentennial celebration of France (centennial of the tower) Tower is central image of Paris/France/Europe 52

53 Here is a view from the bottom looking up. Image: David P. Billington 53

54 Poll question: Use ONE word to describe the Eiffel Tower. 54

55 Use one word to describe the Eiffel Tower 55

56 Let s see what people of France thought of it. The high art world was extremely opposed. Artists were begging the city not to build it. Here are some words they used to describe it. This is what the artists of Paris were saying about the tower. They thought it was only going to be there for 20 years. Image: David P. Billington High art world hated it Objections because it was so different. Paris at that time was a stone façade city Guy de Maupassant (French writer) hated it but always ate lunch in the tower because it was the only place in Paris from where he wouldn t have to look at it Do we see it as a work of art? Is it all subjective? No, one external mean, for example Go to expert to know if Mozart is better than? Or, if go to art museum exhibit Or, if artists respond to it Maupassant was one of a fair number of 19th century Parisians, including Alexandre Dumas and Charles Garnier, who did not care for the Eiffel Tower.[5] He often ate lunch in the restaurant at its base, not out of preference for the food but because it was only there that he could avoid seeing its otherwise unavoidable profile.[6] He and forty six other Parisian literary and artistic notables attached their names to an elaborately irate letter of protest against the tower's construction, written to the Minister of Public Works.[7] about the tower/themed files/71.html 56

57 These artists protested against the tower and wrote an official protesting letter as depicted here. Source: about the tower/themedfiles/71.html 57

58 Eiffel responds to this in an interesting manner. I ve underlined in blue points that allude to the elegance of the Eiffel Tower s form. In red, I ve underlined aspects where he address efficiency and economy. He says that you don t have to separate efficiency and economy from elegance, and mentions its primary form is determined from wind resistance. The transparency also prevents large forces from hurricanes and makes a case for the beauty of the technical aspects of the tower. Source: about the tower/themedfiles/71.html 58

59 Robert Delaunay was another artist stimulated by the Eiffel Tower. Image left: Philadelphia Museum of Art Robert Delaunay, 1909 painting. Fascinated by towers and gothic structures There have been many paintings Artists stimulus to their own work 59

60 Delaunay was interested in Gothic and modern structures as well. He saw a connection between stone Gothic works and this iron structure (many artists of the early 20 th c. also saw this) Image right: Hoog, Michael. Robert Delaunay. p. 22 Struggle to build high but be stable new structure 60

61 Then went into towers cubist type of paintings (influence by Picasso) Painters begin to see tower in radically new way can now see various facades from one point of view idea of transparency Image left: The Guggenheim Museum 61

62 Delaunay did this Windows Form/light motif goes through paintings Transparency Very abstract, but you can see the outline of the Eiffel tower Curve of tower is see as a light motif Images: Philadelphia Museum of Art 62

63 Even poets get inspired (Anti German poem in the shape of the Eiffel Tower) Image left: Braibant, Charles. Histoire de la Tour Eiffel. p

64 Finally, we see it in its currency. Unfortunately it no longer exists, but it was placed on the currency for France signifying its significance and symbolism for the country. French 200 Franc note Do still have images of bridges and things on the new Euros, but not the Eiffel Tower (can t put French icon on German money ) 64