RECLAMATION PLANNING IN HARD ROCK QUARRIES:

Transcription

1 RECLAMATION PLANNING IN HARD ROCK QUARRIES: Final Draft Report Programme: Managers: Sponsors: SUSTAINABLE LAND WON AND MARINE DREDGED AGGREGATES MINERALS PROGRAMME MINERAL INDUSTRY RESEARCH ORGANISATION OFFICE OF THE DEPUTY PRIME MINISTER & MINERAL INDUSTRY RESEARCH ORGANISATION Department of Civil and Structural Engineering University of Sheffield J. C. Cripps V. Roubos Environmental Consultancy University of Sheffield D. Hughes M. Burton H. Crowther A. Nolan C. Travis EDGE Consultants I. M. Nettleton M. A. Czerewko D. Tonks 31ST MARCH 2004 i

2 Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD UK Table of Contents 1. Introduction The Need for Reclamation Proposals Aims of this Guidance Legislation and Planning Policy Current legislation and policy guidance Minerals Legislation and Policy Landscape and Biodiversity Rationale Defining the Plan Process Expert Advice and Consultations Consultations Defining the Project Preliminary Aims and Objectives Desk Study Preliminary Site Investigations Consultations Opportunities and Constraints Geological Influences Characteristics of Rock Masses Argillaceous Deposits Engineering Soils Outline Options for Reclamation Opportunities Managed Natural Reclamation Enhancing Landscape and Biodiversity Through Quarry Reclamation Landscape and Visual Amelioration Geological and Archaeological Conservation Built Residential & Industrial Development Landfill Constraints Soils and Soil Forming Materials Boundary Constraints Operational Characteristics of Hard Rock Quarries Blasting methods Hazards due to Instability of Slopes and Faces ii

3 4. Aims and Objectives of Quarry Reclamation Defining Terms Preliminary Aims and Objectives Setting and Describing Aims and Objectives Objectives for Stability Objectives for Landscape Reclamation Objectives for Ecological Reclamation Outline Proposals for Reclamation Detailed Site Investigations Environmental assessment Survey Requirements Topographic Character of the Area Ecological Character of Area Reclamation Materials Determination of the Geological Site Conditions Slope and Face Stability Post- Quarrying Land Uses Extended Survey Prorames Feasibility Assessment and Review Reclamation Proposals Outline Proposals Final Proposals for Reclamation Review and Re-statement of Aims and Objectives Feasibility Assessment Preparing final proposals Typical landforms available for reclamation in hard-rock quarries Designing for Stability Landform replication using restoration blasting Design for Landscape Techniques for Achieving Desired Landscape Features Screening of the quarry Landscaping Quarry Landforms Designing for Ecology What are Semi-Natural Habitats? How Can Quarry Reclamation Contribute to Nature Conservation? Ecological Design Principles Habitat Targets for Quarry Reclamation Soils iii

4 6.7.1 Primary Soil Characteristics Ecological Reclamation Techniques Vegetation Establishment Experimental treatments Temporary landscapes Incorporating existing interests Managing Soils The Need for a Soil Management Strategy Soil Fertility Soil profile and depth Soil-forming materials (SFMs) Soil Ameliorants Site Zoning and Phasing Drawings Masterplanning Other Drawings Plan Review and Monitoring Aftercare and Long Term Management Aftercare Aftercare for Nature Conservation and Landscape Amenity Longer Term Management Nature Conservation Considerations for Long-Term Management Landscape considerations for long term management Monitoring Ecological Monitoring Landscape Monitoring Stability monitoring Record Keeping Implementation of site management and aftercare maintenance Appendix (List of Quarries) Appendix (List of References and Bibliography) Appendix iv

5 (Steering Group and Advisory Correspondence Group associated with the project) Appendix (Technical Expertise, Publications and Guidance) Appendix (Tables 1, 2 and 3) Appendix (Glossary) v

6 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Need for Reclamation Proposals Historically, the UK's hard rock reserves have been quarried from countryside locations and many of the most extensively exploited reserves lie within areas now designated as National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). Even with greater use of recycled materials, the geographical distribution of suitable resources is such that there is little prospect that this situation will cease. Even if there were no new permissions for extraction in these areas, this history has resulted in a legacy of disused quarries requiring reclamation. In 1997, total aggregate reserves in National Parks and AONB's accounted for 17.4% of total permitted reserves. Around 27% of the sites were associated with SSSIs in England and Wales (Highley et al., 2003), many of which have also been recognised as sites of European nature conservation importance (Special Areas for Conservation - SACs). Carboniferous Limestone is the single most important aggregate rock in England, and 35% of its outcrop is located within National Parks with a further 17% in AONBs. Within such areas and elsewhere, there is a clear environmental imperative to reclaim quarries to achieve appropriate safe and stable landforms which are visually appropriate and which support sustainable and appropriate ecologies. This applies whatever end land-use is planned for the site but it is worth noting that some 600 SSSI's exist within disused quarries, of which 500 contain notable geological features. Although many existing quarry reclamation schemes may include re-use of the sites as nature conservation areas (SSSIs etc), sites of geological importance (Regionally Important Geological Sites - RIGS etc), some may be used for commercial, industrial and residential development, agricultural land, forestry, public amenity etc. Even under these uses, there is a need to reclaim sites in ways that avoid scarring the landscape, posing environmental or safety hazards and subsequent high maintenance costs. There have been various attempts at restoration of hard rock quarries since the 1970s, some of them highly successful (Humphries, 1979). However, the many of these are unpublished in-house projects carried out by quarrying companies. Occasional significant research projects, such as the DoE "Restoration Blasting" and the DTLR "Reclamation of Limestone Quarries by Landform Simulation" research (DETR, 1997; DTLR, 2002) have reported on particular techniques. The substantial difficulties in forming stable and environmentally acceptable landform features by restoration blasting are well documented in this research. The findings also indicate areas requiring further research and guidance to encourage effective use of these and similar environmentally appropriate reclamation techniques. Due to high strength and high durability hard rocks commonly occur at outcrop with limited overburden thickness. Such rocks are valued for use as aggregates, the production of engineering materials, such as concrete and tarmacadam and as raw materials for cement and other manufacturing industries. These applications require fragmented rock having various particle sizes and bulk blasting is used for extraction. A small amount of hard rock is quarried for use as building or dimension stone for which low fragmentation production techniques are used. Hard rock quarries tend to be in existence for relatively long periods of time, usually decades. As usually there is little opportunity for introducing large amounts of fill and only a small amount of waste change to the landscape may well be significant. Progressive and post-quarrying restoration, including screening, habitat creation and other measures are crucial to minimise the adverse environmental impacts of such extended extraction periods. 1

7 1.2 Aims of this Guidance RECLAMATION PLANNING IN HARD ROCK QUARRIES: This document aims to provide guidance on an appropriate methodology for the planning of reclamation, including the formation of new landscape features, such as slopes and faces, and associated ecologies. The long-term sustainability of any reclamation scheme needs also to be ensured and this requires careful planning and design, appropriate after care and management, to ensure that the new landscape is safe and environmentally beneficial It is hoped that this guidance will provide a recognised approach which can be adopted as a standard for the planning, design and assessment of quarry reclamation proposals. The guidance is based upon detailed observations of the landscape features and settings, vegetation and stability conditions at 25 English hard rock quarries (see Appendix 1). These included limestone, sandstone and igneous rock quarries spread across various parts of the country, including National Parks, AONBs and other sensitive landscapes. The quarries surveyed included both active and abandoned sites, including many now being used for new purposes. The guidance is based on the legislation and quarry practice found in England but many of the findings would be applicable elsewhere. An extensive literature search undertaken as part of the study for this guidance revealed the existence of much highly relevant advice and information relating to reclamation in hard rock quarries, (see Appendix 2). Experience from some non-quarrying contexts has also provided valuable insights, including relevant experience in Scotland on minimising the environmental impact of road cuttings along trunk road improvement schemes in AONBs. This work entailed the use of particular techniques of interest to reclamation, including controlled blasting and bulk blasting techniques, coupled with innovative design principles to form stable, low maintenance and environmentally sympathetic rock exposures. (The Scottish Office, 1998). In addition to these data sources, valuable input and support was provided by a project from the Steering Group and an advisory Correspondence Group (see Appendix 3). 1.3 Legislation and Planning Policy Because quarries have significant impacts on the environment, on landscape and on human populations, they are the subject of extensive legislation and policy guidance. A brief description of the relevant planning policies and legislation are described below. Planning guidance is to be comprehensively revised as part of a reform of the planning system. PPGs will be replaced by PPS s (Planning Policy statements) and MPGs by MPSs. However the current guidance will remain in place until the replacement guidance has been finalised and published. Of particular relevant to this report, there are no plans to replace MPG7 in the immediate future. Notification of changes to the guidance should be sought from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister web site ( Current legislation and policy guidance It is central government policy in England that any land worked for minerals should be reclaimed at the earliest opportunity to a condition suitable for the most beneficial after-use. Under the Town & Country Planning (Minerals) Act 1981, planning authorities were given powers to impose aftercare conditions for agriculture, forestry or amenity purposes when considering and granting planning permission for the working of minerals. This act has been superseded by the Town & Country Planning Act (T&CP Act), 1990 and amended by the Planning & Compensation Act 1991, in which Schedule 5 outlines detailed provisions and requirements for the aftercare of mineral workings in England (See Table 1.2 for definitions). In addition, government guidance is available in the form of Mineral Planning Guidance notes and Planning Policy Guidance notes (see Table 1.1). In all cases where reclamation proposals are required, the relevant statutory authorities should be identified and consulted for guidance and approval, see Chapter 2 Consultation, Table 2.5. Such consultations should be undertaken at the earliest stage in the 2

8 development of reclamation proposals.further guidance of legislation in relation to quarries is provided by Enviros Aspinwall (2000). Table 1.1 Legislation and policy guidance. LEGISLATION LEGISLATION National Parks & Access to the Countryside Act 1949 Mines & Quarries Act 1954 Countryside Act 1968 Forestry Act 1979 Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 (As Amended) Town & Country Planning (Minerals) Act 1981 Environmental Protection Act 1990 Town & Country Panning Act Amended by Planning & Compensation Act 1991 Town & Country Planning Act (Development Plan) Regulation 1991 The Protection of Badgers Act 1992 Construction (Design & Management) Regulations 1994 Conservation (Habitats &c) Regulations 1994 (Habitats Regulations Environment Act 1995 The Quarries Regulations 1999 Town & Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 1999 Countryside Right of Way Act (CRoW) 2000 The Water Environment (Water Framework Directive) (England and Wales) Regulations 2003 Scottish Planning Advice Note PAN 64 Reclamation of Surface Mineral Workings, (Not directly applicable but provides essential guidance) GUIDANCE PLANNING POLICY GUIDANCE NOTES: PPG2 Greenbelts PPG7 The Countryside & Rural Economy, 1997 PPG9 Nature Conservation, 1994 PPG10 Planning & Waste Management, 1999 PPG14 Development on Unstable Land, 1990 PPG16 Archaeology and Planning, 1990 PPG17 Sport & Leisure, 1991 PPG23 Planning & Pollution Control, 1994 MINERAL PLANNING GUIDANCE NOTES: MPG General consideration and the development plan system * MPG2 Applications, Permissions & Conditions, 1988 MPG5 Stability in Surface Mineral Workings and Tips, 2000 MPG7 The Reclamation of Mineral Workings, 1996 MPG10 Provision of Raw Materials for the Cement Industry, 1991 OTHER RELEVANT POLICY GUIDANCE Biodiversity: The UK Action Plan (HMSO, 1994) * MPG1 is to be replaced by MPS1 Planning and Minerals Minerals Legislation and Policy Minerals Planning Guidance note MPG7 states that planning conditions for reclamation should normally be framed with the intended after-use in mind. However, separate planning permission is likely to be required for any after-use except: Agriculture & forestry (which are excluded from the definition of development in the T&CP Act, 1990). Uses listed in The Town & Country Planning (General Permitted Development) Order Nature conservation and informal recreation not involving substantial public use. Any application for development on a current or disused mineral working site which would conflict with, or prejudice compliance with a restoration and aftercare condition imposed in respect of the mineral working will be dealt with by the mineral Planning Authority (MPA). The local planning authority (where different) is likely to be responsible for determining any planning application required to implement any subsequent after-use of a reclaimed site after the requirements of the mineral permission have been satisfactorily completed and formally discharge. 3

9 Table 1.2. Definitions used in legislation Statutory Definitions: Schedule 5 of the Town & Country Planning Act, 1990 Restoration Condition Requirement that after operation for winning & working of minerals have been completed, the site shall be restored by the use of any or all of the following: subsoil; topsoil; soil making material. Aftercare Condition - Other definitions: Reclamation (MPG 7) - Reclamation (MPG 7) After-use (MPG 7) Forestry Amenity woodland Amenity use (MPG7) Steps to be taken as may be necessary to bring land to the required standard for whichever of the following uses it is specified in the Planning Condition, namely: 1- use for Agriculture 2- use for Forestry 3- use for Amenity Steps which may be specified in an aftercare condition or scheme and therefore included in the meaning of aftercare are: planting; cultivating; fertilising; watering; draining; or otherwise treating the land. Operations associated with mineral workings designed to return the area to an acceptable environmental condition, whether for the resumption of the former land use or for a new use. Includes restoration and aftercare as defined in schedule 5 (1990) above and also includes events which take place before & during mineral extraction, such as stripping & protection of soils, and may include operations after extraction such as filling & contouring or creation of planned water areas. Ultimate after-use of a mineral working for agriculture, forestry, amenity (including nature conservation), industrial or other development. A utilisable crop of timber. Woodland for public benefit and nature conservation. General term including: grassland for informal recreation; more formal sporting facilities; amenity woodland; lagoons for water recreation; conservation of landscape & wildlife. Schedule 5 of the (Town and Country Planning Act, 1990 empowers MPAs to impose aftercare conditions on granting planning permission in relation to land that is to be used for agriculture, forestry or amenity. Aftercare runs for a statutory period of 5 years commencing from when the soil profile is established to bring the land up to a satisfactory standard. This period may be extended by mutual consent if required to enables reclamation objectives to be met (for further guidance see MPG7). The act also stipulates that the last person or company operating land for the working of minerals is financially responsible for aftercare of the land, unless a legally binding agreement with another party has been made. Current legislation and guidance, including PPG14 Development on unstable land, and PPG14 Annex 1 Landslides & Planning, MPG 5, MPG 7 and The Quarries Regulation, 1999 (and associated ACOP) offer guidance to Local Authorities, Landowners, Mineral Operators and developers in exercising beneficial planning control with respect to stability of surface workings and associated features such as tips and lagoons. Good practice for the design of excavated slopes is aimed at ensuring that workings are not detrimentally affected by instability for the benefit of the operator in the short-term, and for the long-term benefit to the environment and restoration after-use. Legislation therefore attempts to promote the following: mitigatation of impacts on neighbouring land, avoidance of premature cessation of workings, abandoned workings to be left in a safe and stable state, control and whenever possible elimination of instability in active quarries, sustainable extraction that benefits the operator, with careful attention to stability matters during production and for effective after-use development, effective mitigation of potential risk to 3 rd parties and near-by development or due to tips and lagoons. 4

10 MPG7 also presents a review and guidance on essential technical requirements. An appropriate after-use is a requirement of quarry planning proposals, although it is accepted that such schemes invariably require amendment during the working lifetime of a quarry. Such amendments may result in changes in proposed after-uses. Under current legislation there is no real definition for a fitness for use standard to be achieved. Consequently, appropriate, achievable reclamation targets have to be set on a site specific basis, depending on end use and agreement between quarry operators and Regulators. Quarries are also subject to the provisions of the Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974 which, along with The Quarries Regulations, 1999 is enforced by the quarries inspectors of the Health and Safety Executive. The Quarries Regulations, 1999 requires that on abandonment or cessation of work at a quarry the operator ensures the site is left in a safe condition. On cessation of working and following restoration, responsibility for the former quarry site reverts to the land owner, developer or employer who operates part or the whole of the site as a place of work. The Construction Design and Management (CDM) Regulations, 1994 may also apply when quarry reclamation for built development is to be undertaken and where stabilisation techniques are being undertaken. The duties of the designer are defined under CDM Regulation 13. It is a statutory obligation for the client or his appointed agent to ensure that the project is properly managed and that any structures, are designed and constructed in a safe manner. Thus enough time must be allowed in the project scheduling for construction to be carried out safely. Although most ongoing quarry reclamation work will not fall within the CDM regulations, the procedures and philosophy reflect good practice and therefore should be positively encouraged. It is therefore judicious to elicit advice about intended reclamation work with the Health and Safety Executive to determine the status of such intended reclamation work Landscape and Biodiversity European and UK Legislation The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 provides for the designation of National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Beauty (AONBs) and underpins national policy in relation to landscape conservation. A great many existing quarries occur in, or close to, such designated landscapes and hard-rock minerals predominate in these areas. Primary European legislation of relevance for biodiversity is provided by the Conservation of Wild Birds (The Birds Directive) 1979 and the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (The Habitats Directive) The Habitats Directive is implemented in the UK by Statutory Instrument (Habitats Regulations 1994). The habitat and species protection provisions of both the EC Directives on Birds and on Habitats receive domestic implementation through the Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981 and its amendments. The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 introduced the concept of National Nature Reserves (NNRs) and SSSIs, important for their flora and fauna, geological or physiographical (landform) features; and conferred powers on local authorities to create nature reserves. The 1981 Act allows for the designation of National Nature Reserves (NNRs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), to protect areas containing habitats and species of national or international importance. All SPAs and SACs identified under the EC Directives are also SSSIs. The 1981 Act also provides for the protection of certain species. These include a number of specially protected birds (listed in Schedule 1). Other animals are listed in Schedule 5 and a number of plant species under Schedule 8. The Habitats Regulations (1994) provide domestic implementation of the EU Habitats Directive Under the Regulations, species listed in Annex II of the directive are given strict protection in the UK as European protected species. As with species scheduled under the 1981 Act (as Amended), under the Regulations it is an offence intentionally or recklessly to disturb or to harm a European protected species, unless as an incidental result of an otherwise lawful operation. 5

11 Regulation 44 outlines purposes for which a licence may be granted to undertake activities which may affect a European protected species, including appropriate mitigation proposals for the impacts of development. Under Regulation 3, all public authorities are required to have regard to the provisions of the Habitats Directive in the exercise of their functions. The Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981(as Amended) and the Habitat Regulations, 1994 are the main pieces of protective legislation for habitats and species. Further protection is provided under the CRoW Act, 2000 which strengthens both the protection of SSSIs and the enforcement provisions for protected species, in addition to providing statutory underpinning for the UK and local Biodiversity Action Plans. Policy Instruments for nature conservation PPG9 on Nature Conservation (1994) provides the core policy guidance on nature conservation and planning. With particular reference to quarries, paragraph 42 states that Extraction of minerals can create new types of habitat in areas where they were formerly rare or absent, while quarry faces may provide a valuable supplement to natural outcrops since features of geological importance may be revealed during quarrying operations. PPG9 provides guidance on the protection of nature conservation resources through strategic planning guidance and development control. It provides a lead, in particular, in encouraging local authorities to identify important nature conservation resources and to develop and implement policies for their protection. Wildlife sites of value other than SSSIs - referred to often as Wildlife Sites - have no statutory protection and rely upon strategic planning policies and development control for their conservation. Para. 19 clearly states that nature conservation objectives should be taken into account in all planning activities which affect rural and coastal land use, and in urban areas where there is wildlife of local importance. Under paragraph 27 of PPG9 the potential significance of nature conservation as a material planning consideration is emphasised. Paragraph 28 goes on to state that where there is a risk of damage to a designated site, the planning authority should consider the use of conditions or planning obligations in the interests of nature conservation. PPG9 also provides guidance on the conservation of protected species in relation to planning matters. Paragraph 47 makes it clear that the presence of a protected species is a material consideration for planning authorities when considering development proposals. It recommends a local planning authority to consider the use of appropriate planning conditions or obligations to secure the protection of the species, especially where a European protected species is likely to be affected. Biodiversity Action Plans Following the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1991, the central thrust of Central government Policy on nature conservation has been developed in Biodiversity: The UK Action Plan (HMSO, 1994). The UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report (HMSO, 1995) incorporates a number of national action plans for target habitats and species. A number of Local Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs) have also been prepared for different counties or regions of the UK. The Countryside and Rights of Way Act, 2000 (CROW Act) establishes a legislative basis for the preparation of Biodiversity Action Plans to inform policy at all levels in relation to biodiversity matters. Revisions to PPG9 are proposed and local plan reviews will be increasingly required to incorporate appropriate biodiversity policy. The UK responsibility for BAPs is now devolved to counties and local BAPs are widely available. More information on BAPS can be found on the website The Government is keen to encourage species or habitat champions from the private sector. Quarry reclamation projects provide an opportunity for operators to assist in this process and in return can benefit form positive publicity and raised public profile. 6

12 1.4 Rationale Defining the Plan Process This Guidance document focuses on the landscape and ecological aspects of hard rock quarry reclamation. However, in view of the amount of post-construction remedial work that may be required, due attention needs to be given to the stability condition of the newly created landforms. Not only may instability compromise the safety of personnel and property, it may also result in the destruction of the landscape features themselves. For example, some of the rock buttress features created by experimental restoration blasting in limestone quarries in Derbyshire had to be removed for safety reasons (ECUS, 2002). The emphasis of this Guidance is towards a process driven approach to reclamation planning. Its aim is to provide assistance with the process of design and in the development and presentation of reclamation proposals in relation to particular quarries. The process promoted is an iterative one, including a staged approach to information gathering, site investigation and the selection of appropriate end-uses, reclamation aims and techniques, and providing options for consultation at various stages in the development of proposals. The manner in which the environmental impacts of quarries can be prevented or reduced depends on many factors, including the local topography, vegetation, land-use and availability of materials of different types. Seldom is returning the landscape to its former morphology a viable option. The disposal of waste with suitable safeguards against potential pollution, may make such a scheme feasible, but this could not provide a universal means of reclamation. The more common approach is liable to entail establishing new landforms and ecologies that appropriately fit into the local setting. An additional potential benefit of the guidance presented in this document may be to assist in ensuring a continuation of sustainable quarrying activity in England, by providing appropriate, environmentally beneficial reclamation schemes and after uses. Although increasing use of recycled materials may reduce the amount of newly quarried stone required, with increasing demand for raw materials and a lack of availability of suitable alternatives for some applications, some quarrying will be required for the foreseeable future. In addition, the use of local sources may well entail lower overall environmental cost when comparisons are made with transporting bulk materials from more distant sources. The provision to the quarrying industry of good practice guidelines for managing reclamation should reassure the Planning Authorities and the Public that good quality reclamation is feasible and that there may well be economic and environmental benefits to be derived from mineral extraction, whilst minimising potential damage to the environment. It is expected that the main beneficiaries of this document will be quarry managers and their consultants who advise on planning applications and planners who are required to assess schemes and make recommendations on their merits. The guidance proposals are summarised in the form of a flow diagram (Fig 1.1) outlining the main stages normally required to plan and develop a reclamation scheme. The approach emphasis the need for a staged approach. Not only must the procedure fit within existing planning law and practice, the need for data input and consultations at the different stages must also be recognised. The guidance describes an iterative process designed to provide assistance with the planning of reclamation from the earliest stages when a quarry proposal is being created, including the design, excavation and post-quarrying stages. Depending on the history of the particular case and site-specific circumstances, some stages may need to be given more or less emphasis or could be completely omitted. 1.5 Expert Advice and Consultations Achieving a successful reclamation scheme requires input from many specialists, and it is also necessary to consult with various people and organisations with an interest in the site. Acquiring appropriate advice is essential to ensure that proposals for reclamation are well designed and suitable for the situation in which they are to be applied. In addition, in order to obtain planning permission and to ensure compliance with relevant regulations, various organisations must be consulted. Figure 1.1 shows that consultation should take place during the scoping exercise at 7

13 the start of the project and following the formulation the conceptual scheme and the development of a final reclamation plan. Expert advice, either from internal company sources or obtained externally, should inform every part of the process of planning and implementing a reclamation scheme. Advice may also be required to evaluate the success of a completed scheme. Technical data and interpretation are required at all stages of the process, including the specification and commissioning of surveys of landscape, ecology, soils and rock mass. The early stages of planning for reclamation should include an assessment of the available expertise, the expertise required to undertake specialist site investigations and develop reclamation proposals and techniques. A strategy will be required to ensure that the necessary advice is obtained at the time when it is most required. The need for expert advice depends on the complexity of the scheme and the availability and suitability of the existing information. The need for advice at different stages should be identified and suitable arrangements made for supply. The cost of obtaining advice may add to the total cost of the scheme. However, the savings in avoiding unnecessary work can also be considerable. Some advice can be obtained from consultees in the normal course of undertaking consultation. However, other needs may require input from Landscape Architects, Planners, Ecologists, Agronomists, Geotechical Engineers, Blasting Designers, Materials Processing Engineers and others. The various Professional Institutions listed in Box 1.1 maintain lists of competent practitioners within their fields. It is vital that advice is sought only from properly qualified personnel, although it must be appreciated that the application of knowledge in any of these disciplines to quarrying is itself a specialist activity that require unusual technical expertise. Box 1.1 Bodies that may supply information about specialists in aspects of quarry reclamation Expertise Organisation Engineering geology, rock and soil slope engineering, geological interpretation, hydrogeology Design and construction of building and other structures, rock and soil slopes. Landscape design Ecological survey and monitoring. Ecological design; habitat creation. Intrusive investigation, construction techniques and opportunities for rock face remedial work Quarry restoration schemes, quarry management and implementation of site works Blast design, landforms creation and blast damage The Geological Society Institution of Civil Engineers Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists Landscape Institute Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management Local Authorities (sometimes hold lists of Ecologists) British Geotechnical Association British Drilling Association Institute of Quarrying Institution of Mining, Minerals and Metallurgy. Quarry Products Association Institute of Explosive Engineers Certain schemes may require additional expertise to those shown in Box 1.2. For instance, where there is an archaeological, geological or industrial interest, advice on the conservation, preservation and display of features may be needed. Further consideration of the types of information that would normally be required in order to formulate the final reclamation plan is provided in Section 5 of this guidance, which deals with Site Investigations. 8

14 1.5.1 Consultations RECLAMATION PLANNING IN HARD ROCK QUARRIES: Consultation is an essential part of the process of planning and developing reclamation proposals, especially where a quarry site falls within or close to environmentally sensitive landscape and wildlife resources. It is important also to ensure that other potential site interests have been adequately considered, such as archaeological interests, geological conservation or recreation. Consultation is of value at three main stages of the planning process, as indicated in Figure 1.1: Scoping for the definition of the project and the identification of opportunities and constraints Following the preparation of Outline Reclamation Proposals Following the development of a Final Reclamation Plan Depending on the outcome of the consultation exercises, revision of the reclamation proposals may be required at each of these stages. The purpose of consultation is to avoid potential conflicts with neighbours and other stakeholders. These may be statuary bodies, private individuals, companies, local residents, tourist authorities and interest groups. Williamson et al. (2003) point out that at the early stages of the process, consultation is liable to involve mainly the local MPA along with English Nature. As the plan develop it may be appropriate to involve others such as local wild life trusts which might play an important role in the design and after-care of sites. Box 1.2 lists potential stakeholders, some of which may also be in a position to proffer advice. Box 1.2 Potential stakeholders for planning quarrying operations and reclamation (after Williamson et al., 2003) The Bat Conservation Trust Biological Records Centres British Archaeological Trust British Geological Survey The Butterfly Conservation Trust English Nature Environment Agency Flora Locale Forestry Commission The Game Conservancy Trust The Herpetologicai Conservation Trust Joint Nature Conservation Committee Local Wildlife Trusts Quarry Products Association Regionally Important Geological Sites Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Soil Survey and Land Research Centre The purpose of the consultation process is to gather data, to inform other stakeholders about the developing plans and to allow participation in the decision being made. Local information about planning issues and the environmental conditions in which the work is to take place will be very valuable. It also provides a forum for the benefits of the reclamation scheme to be explained Due to the potential negative impacts of quarrying, plans for new quarrying or extensions to existing ones often meet with local opposition. Similarly, opposition can be mounted to proposals to reclaim abandoned quarries. Williamson et al. (2003) refer to the creation of a Community Liaison Group at Penrhyn Quarry whose purpose was to involve the local community in setting goals for restoration, aftercare and end use. In this case it was possible to deal with nuisance issues arising from the quarrying operations as well as such matters as the routing of footpaths and the preservation of culturally important features of the quarry. 9

15 Define Project I Consultation 1 Fig 1.1 Proposed scheme for reclamation planning for hard rock quarries Opportunities & constraints Overall aims and objectives Consultation Technical surveys & monitoring Final Plan Outline proposal Consultation Implementation & Supervision Maintain site records & design control Produce maintenance plan & produce Health & Safety file A B SCOPING: Define reclamation project start point, desk-study compile & review inventory of all available data, quarry regulations. Consult with stakeholders & regulators, local & regional development plan. Identify & investigate all opportunities & constraints Beneficial Use, and determine the environmental impact. 2 - OUTLINE CONCEPTUAL SCHEME: Outline the appropriate aims & objectives of the reclamation scheme. Outline specification & schedule of investigation, works & budget. Produce outline timetable for key achievements. 3 INVESTIGATION & DEVELOPMENT: Plan, schedule & undertake detailed technical survey & site investigation, and interpret data. Prepare final reclamation design & development plan. 4 - IMPLEMENTATION Implement & supervise final plan & works, and compile audit trail documentation file 10

16 2 DEFINING THE PROJECT As Figure 1.1 shows, a scoping exercise is required at an early stage of the planning process. The project needs to be defined and any opportunities and constraints for identified. The process should involve consultations with interested parties and stakeholders and will require desk study and review to draw together what is known about the quarry and possible options for reclamation. It may also be necessary to acquire data from other sources and to undertake preliminary site investigations to underpin the conclusions of this review. 2.1 Preliminary Aims and Objectives At the very start of the process it will be necessary to define the starting position for the project. This will depend in part on the previous history of the site and the nature of any current quarrying activities or reclamation works that have already been carried out. It will also be necessary at this early stage to outline some preliminary aims and objectives for reclamation. (More detailed consideration to setting aims and objectives is presented in Chapter 4 of this guidance.) The starting point for the project, and any preliminary aims and objectives, will also be dependent on a review of the known interests and value of the site and its surroundings. The review should include the following aspects: The nature of the site (green-field, old quarry, derelict industrial land etc) Site characteristics (size, depth, situation, present character etc) Land and slope stability issues Landscape character of area Ecological features and biodiversity in the site and the surrounding area Geological characteristic of the site and the area. Archaeological and cultural features of the site and the area The context of the quarry s setting in a wider landscape needs also to be considered. This would include consideration of the status of the site in Regional and Local development Plans and any designations for landscape, biological, geological or archaeological features, both on the site and near-by. One of the purposes of this process would be to identify local environmental priorities that might be met by carrying out the reclamation scheme. Such needs might include the provision of a site suitable for residential development or to provide a local amenity or a site of ecological value which contributes to local biodiversity targets. Existing legislation (Town and Country Planning Act 1990) provides specific restoration and aftercare provisions where agriculture, forestry and amenity are considered as after-use options following development. If an after-use option is being considered other than these, such as built development, then a separate planning application will be required. A number of reclamation after-uses are presented in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 After-use options. CATEGORY OPTIONS AGRICULTURE - Arable use. - Livestock grazing. - Specialist food production i.e. creation of fish ponds, specialist glass-house bio-mass production, etc. FORESTRY - Utilisation of tree crop for commercial production. AMENITY [After-use requiring planting & - Natural Heritage Conservation (geo-, bio-, eco-, & landscape). management of vegetation excluding - Industrial Archaeology & Historical Mining Conservation. forestry or agriculture] - Informal recreation i.e. accessible public open space, camping & caravan sites, picnic sites etc. - Recreational management i.e. fishing resource, outdoor sport such as clay pigeon shooting, climbing etc. - Planned water use. BUILT DEVELOPMENT - Residential - Recreational, i.e. indoor sporting facilities, educational facilities, holiday centres etc. - Leisure & entertainment i.e. shopping centres, entertainment complex etc. - Industrial development i.e. factory, office, storage. LANDFILL (Potential for post landfill built development) - Inert waste i.e. construction waste - Controlled waste i.e. domestic waste (bio-degradable) 11

17 It is notable that landscape and biodiversity the main focuses of this guidance are subsumed here in the general category of amenity. A continuing shift in public and policy attitudes over environmental matters and an increasing emphasis on sustainability in development has perhaps altered this balance since the legislation was framed. Nature conservation after-uses in particular are likely to be given greater prominence today, with an equivalent status as an alternative land-use in its own right. Further considerations that may be important at this early stage of the process include the following Access for possible after-uses, and safety considerations. Whether proposals are likely to achieve a balance between local environmental protection or enhancement, local community needs, regulators and quarry operations. The opportunities for incorporating progressive landscaping and restoration into routine quarry operation. Whether other people or bodies should be consulted eg English Nature, MAFF, Forestry Commission, etc The value of existing habitats within the quarry and the potential for new habitats which reflect local vegetation types of ecological interest. The extent to which exposed features of geological, archaeological, historical, industrial and mining importance might be preserved. In a survey of representatives from the quarrying industry, statutory bodies and planning authorities carried out by Enviros Aspinwall (2000), it was found that the statutory 5 years aftercare period was considered inappropriate. Less formal amenity after-uses were considered to be appropriate but, sites destined for conservation or landform creation, a longer aftercare period is required to allow for habitat establishment. The following recommended aftercare periods for different land uses are suggested: Land restored to grazing 2 to 3 years. Land restored to arable agriculture 5 years. Land restored to forestry 10 years. Land restored to amenity and nature conservation years. 2.2 Desk Study Once preliminary aims and objectives for site restoration have been identified a desk study should be undertaken to establish the recorded history of the site. This will involve consultation with a number of existing data holders. Data gathered during the desk study will allow constraints and opportunities to be identified, and highlight any information shortfalls about the site and surroundings for more detailed site investigations. Initial desk study is a very important part of a reclamation project as the data gathered can lead to large savings by avoiding poorly focussed investigations at a later stage. For quarry reclamation, the desk study process consists of collating data about the biological character and resources of the site and its surroundings, as well as the geological features of the site. Sources of relevant technical expertise should also be reviewed. Many of these are listed in Appendix 4, which is adapted from Williamson et al. (2003). It is also usually helpful to undertake some preliminary site surveys at this stage. Such survey will usually entail walk over and reconnaissance of the site and its surroundings. The intention of such surveys should be to confirm and clarify known interests and features of the site and to underpin any preliminary aims and objectives for reclamation. It is good practice for all data pertinent to a hard rock quarry to be retained during and after the operational life of the quarry and in perpetuity. Consultees will vary depending on the location and nature of the project, but for the majority of sites it is likely that consultation with a range of bodies will be required. Table 2.2 presents a useful but not exhaustive guide to possible sources of relevant information. Continued liaison and consultation should be maintained throughout the reclamation process in order to highlight any constraints which can be addressed during key stages of the reclamation process. 12

18 Table 2.2 Information sources for desk study Quarry Operator (may be in-house) English Nature Wildlife trusts Environment Agency, English Heritage. County Archaeological Officers Local Authority Record Office (Biological Records Centre and Local Authority Ecologist), Specialist local species groups (eg. Bats, badgers) Local authority archaeologists or Archaeological Trust, Council for British Archaeology Regionally Important Geological and Geomorphological Sites Groups Information relating to geology, stability, structural assessments, available materials, existing restored areas. Statutory designations e.g. NNNRs, SSSIs ASSSIs Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB s)etc. Will advise on the occurrence of protected species e.g. Great crested newt Non-statutory wildlife Sites. Habitat and species information. Species, habitat records and water resource information Advice on archaeological interest and survey. Location and details of Scheduled Ancient Monuments. Repositories of National Archaeological Record. Species and habitat information. County Series (OS) maps. Estate plans and early documents relating to site history. Species records Site history and information Information on non statutory sites e.g. RIGs Typical information gathered for desk study is likely to include items in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Typical information at desk study stage Habitats Protected/ designated habitats including SAC, SPA, Ramsar, NNR, SSSI, LNR and local Wildlife Sites (SNCI; BNS etc.) within 2.5km. Any Existing Phase 1 survey information. Any Phase 2 habitat or species survey information for the site and adjacent areas. Species Any information on protected, scarce or species of conservation concern, including national and local BAP species within 1km of the site. Published Review existing published information such as ancient woodland inventory, Invertebrate sites register, Information and county and national atlases of the flora and fauna, including red data books. Mineral Resource Evaluation & geological reports. National Archaeological Record Maps Study of maps can provide useful information on a site s hydrology, topography, geology, land use history, and underlying soils Aerial Useful for identifying features in context to one another and assessing the overall landscape character of Photographs the site and surroundings. Also useful for identifying possible areas for suitable landform replication Topographical Records &/or geomorphological observations of natural & man-induced instability in area. Comprehensive details of all former surface & underground mineral workings, shafts, adits etc. Details & reference of any boreholes, installations, excavations, natural exposures, cuttings, SI, Mineral Resource Evaluation & geological reports. Inventory of landforms and features, such as tips, bunds, lagoons Hydrological Natural, former & artificially diverted water courses, tips, lagoons, etc. Groundwater & surface discharge information (i.e. spring lines etc.) Geological Types, properties, thickness and distribution of superficial deposits. Thickness, nature, properties, weathering & relative distribution of bedrock. Details of pertinent laboratory &/or in situ material test data. Characteristics of pertinent geomechanical features including; structural (cleavage, bedding, faults, fold trends etc); and discontinuities (fracture zones, joints, fissures, solution features, etc). Further information and guidance may be obtained from the British Geological Survey ( and various publications, including (Dumpleton & West, 1974; Dumpleton & West, 1976; Ellison & Smith, 1997; Simons, Menzies & Matthews, 2002; BS 5930:1999 etc). Physical / landforms Landscape character Landscape and visual impacts Karst, Cave and Solution feature records (local Speleological groups etc.) Existing landscape character assessments for the area, background literature on elements of the landscape, relevant plans and policies, current and historical OS maps and other mapped data, aerial photographs. Aerial photographs, current and historical OS maps and other maps, plans showing landscape and other related designations, existing landscape character assessments or guidelines, site plans Data sources such as topographic maps, geological maps, aerial photographs and remote sensed images should be consulted. It is important to refer to maps of different scales as they may show different information. It is likely that the largest scale maps will show the most detail. It can also be beneficial to refer to historical and new editions of topographic and geological maps as these may reveal information about past land uses, land movements (such as subsidence erosion and deposition). Drift geological maps show the distribution of the superficial materials which form the land surface below the top soils and any layers of subsoil. Thus the maps show the various recent, unconsolidated materials, such as sands, gravels and clays that lie above the bedrock. Where such materials are absent, then the bedrock is shown. Solid maps show the distribution of the older and harder rock like formations of the upper Earth s crust without indicating the presence of any of any overlying 13

19 deposits. The interpretation of geological maps is a skilled task, and expert advice should be sought to do this. Any existing details of designated and protects sites, protected and scarce species and scarce habitats should be collated. The existence of any Biodiversity Action Plans should be identified. Similarly, information about the landscape designation should be sought and a review carried out of the strategic policy context of the area. Desk studies for Landscape and Visual Impacts at this preliminary stage will help determine the likely extent of the study area. They will help identify the most sensitive areas of the landscape and landscape elements and the most sensitive impact receptors to proposed changes to the quarry landscape. Similarly, a preliminary desk study of landscape character will help to understand the scope of the assessment and aid familiarisation with the nature and character of the landscape. Desk study information should be consolidated into a report together with the findings of any preliminary site investigations (see below), with appropriate interpretation and evaluation. The report should contains relevant actual information and summarise the physical character of the site, its mineral resources and available reclamation materials and any existing nature conservation, geological or archaeological interests in the quarry. 2.3 Preliminary Site Investigations Preliminary site investigations should seek to identify or clarify known interests or identified in the desk study. Preliminary surveys should be undertaken even if recent survey material is available, to ensure that the interest of the site is accurately recorded. There can be no general rule as to what surveys or levels of detail will be required at this stage of investigation since requirements will be very site-specific. However, the aim should be to provide a general overview of the site s character, interests and reclamation resources, to support the desk study and aims and objectives for consultation. The following table highlights a range of areas of investigation that might be required. For ecological purposes, initial assessment should focus on broad habitat survey. Botanical/habitats survey should be based on Extended Phase 1 survey. Mapping of habitats should be undertaken at a scale sufficient to record detailed features e.g. 1:2, 500. Habitats with potential to support protected species or species of conservation concern should be noted. This will inform requirements for more detailed species survey (see chapter 5). The survey should record opportunities and constraints for habitat creation drawing on observation of existing interest and data consultation. Initial site investigations for landscape assessment should include familiarisation with the nature of the landscape and its character to inform any future more detailed landscape character assessment. They will also confirm the study area and potentially sensitive receptors and viewpoints as identified in the desk study. These will in turn inform later more detailed landscape and visual impact assessment work. Information about the geological character of the area included the nature of the strata, including the lithologies present and the geological structure, including the orientation of the strata present and distribution and mode of occurrence of igneous rocks. Attention should be paid to both solid and drift geology. The presence of any geological faults should be notes, together with the predominant directions of rock mass discontinuities such as joints, fractures and bedding planes. A number of useful references and guidance for preliminary site investigation approaches are available, including those listed in Table Consultations Following initial consideration of appropriate after-uses, an initial consultation and early involvement with statutory and relevant non-statutory consultees should be arranged to take advantage of their advice and enable them to contribute to the choice of appropriate restoration and aftercare techniques. Appropriate consultees depending on location of the site and intended after-use should be consulted (see Table 2.5). 14

20 Table 2.4 Geological data sources USEFUL REFERENCES & GUIDANCE FOR SITE INVESTIGATIONS: BS 5930 (1999) Code of practice for site investigations. British Standards Institution, London. Byron H (2000). Biodiversity Impact Assessment: A Good Practice Guide for Road Schemes. RSPB, WWF-UK, English Nature and the Wildlife Trusts, Sandy Land Use Consultants (1996) Reclamation of damaged land for nature conservation. HMSO, London English Nature (1994). Species Conservation Handbook. Institute Of Environmental Assessment (1995). Guidelines for the Baseline Ecological Input to Environmental Assessment in the UK. E and F.N Spons. London and New York Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment and the Landscape Institute (2002). Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment. (2 nd ed). IEMA, London. Scottish Natural Heritage and Countryside Agency (2002). Landscape Character Assessment Guidance for England and Scotland. JNCC. (1993). Handbook for Phase 1 Habitat Survey UK Biodiversity Steering Group (1995). Biodiversity: the UK Steering Group Report. Volume I and II. Meeting the Rio Challenge. HMSO. London. UK Biodiversity Group (1998-9). Tranche 2 Action Plans Volumes I to VI. UKBG/English Nature. Peterborough. Dumbleton M. J. & West G. (1976) Preliminary sources of information for site investigation in Britain. TRRL Report 403, Crowthorne. Matheson G. D. (1983) Rock Stability Assessment in Preliminary Site Investigations Graphical Methods. TRRL Laboratory Report Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party Report (1995) The description and classification of weathered rock for engineering purposes. QJEGH, 28, Hoek E (1998) Putting numbers to geology an engineers viewpoint. 2ng Glossop Lecture. QJEG, 32, Ellison R. A. & Smith A. (1997) A guide to sources of earth science information for planning and development. British Geological Survey technical Report WA/97/85. Fookes P. G. (1997) The geological model, prediction and performance. 1 st Glossop Lecture. QJEG, 30, Hutchinson J. N. (2001). Reading the ground: Morphology and geology in site appraisal. 4 th Glossop lecture. QJEGH, 34, Brunsden D (2002). Geological roulette for engineers and planners: some insights into an old game. 5 th Glossop lecture. QJEGH, 35, Simons N., Menzies B. & Matthews M. (2002). A Short Course in Geotechnical Site Investigation. Thomas Telford Publishing, p353. Table 2.5. Statutory & Non-Statutory Consultees. Mineral Planning Authority (MPA) Forestry Commission (FC) Environment Agency (EA) Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM formerly DETR & DoE) Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) English Nature (EN) Wildlife Trust Partnership National Parks Authorities (NPA) Local (unitary) Planning Authorities (LA) Arboricultural Advisory & Information Service (AAIS) National Urban Forestry Unit (NUFU) Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) Game Conservancy Wildlife & Wetland Trust (WWT) Regional Councils for Sport & Recreation Health & Safety Executive Regionally Important geological & Geomorphological Sites Groups (RIGS) English Heritage Local Universities & research institutions A review of the major stakeholders and their perspectives and requirements should be carried out to guide future consultation exercises. Consideration should also be given to setting up a liaison group or forum with representatives from the various interested parties. 15

21 3. OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS Following preliminary site investigations and desk studies, more detailed attention needs to be given to the options available for reclamation and for after uses. Options for reclamation and projected end-use are likely to be co-dependent since some forms of reclamation will create conditions that preclude certain land uses. For instance, the presence of slopes with a degree of instability would make residential development inappropriate, whereas it may be acceptable for an agricultural after use. Frequently, reclamation options are constrained by a limited availability of fill material especially where a high quality rock is overlain by only a thin layer of superficial material. Consequently, reclamation by backfilling may not be possible in all cases. In practice, the large number of variable factors influencing site conditions and the suitability of reclamation options means that, each quarry and its reclamation needs will be different. In view of the fact that hard rock quarries may be in existence for many years, or decades, it can be difficult to formulate detailed restoration plans at the outset. Apart from the difficulty of deciding upon an appropriate land use, the uncertain nature of quarry working means that the character of the site at the end of the quarrying operations can be difficult to predict. The manner in which the site is worked needs also to be taken into account. In most cases, extraction proceeds vertically rather than horizontally so that progressive restoration is often impossible. However, evidence gathered during the preparation of this guidance indicates that successful reclamation requires long-term planning and the pursuit of a consistent, planned approach. In the case of Howick Quarry, Northumberland, for example, the early choice of a final land use has provided a focus for reclamation work. In this case, positive landowner interest in the project has also been a positive influence. Typically sites may present a number of opportunities for future land uses but not all these will be equally feasible or desirable. It is important to consider opportunities and constraints in an integrated manner in the planning process although they are necessarily dealt with in separate sections below. 3.1 Geological Influences Characteristics of Rock Masses Rock masses in quarries may be formed from one or more types of rock material, with differing properties and characteristics. The rock material may be subdivided into hard (strong) and soft (weak) rock types. Hard rock may be defined as naturally occurring inorganic material that requires a hard blow from a geological hammer to break or cause fragmentation and is classified by British Standard Classification (BS 5930:1999) as moderately strong or stronger. This includes a range of generic rock types including: Igneous rocks (plutonic, intrusive & extrusive): granite, gabbro, lamprophyre, diorite, dolerite, basalt, andesite etc. Metamorphic rocks: gneiss, slate, greywacke, metasandstones etc. Sedimentary rocks sandstone and limestone. Soft rocks are defined as material that can easily be broken or disaggregated by a firm blow from a geological hammer, a definition that includes chalk, weak mudrocks, shale etc. Hard rock material has high particle bond strengths resulting in a material of high strength and durability, suitable for civil engineering applications including construction of roads and other structures, use as armour stone and the production of engineering materials such as concrete and tarmac. All rock masses are intersected by various joints, bedding planes and fractures. The collective name for these features is discontinuities which are dislocations or surfaces of weakness due to physical breaks, or changes in the mineralogy of the rock mass. Discontinuities do not have to be surfaces of separation although they are features with little to no tensile strength. 16

22 Discontinuities are manifested in a number of different features and characteristics including joints, bedding planes and faults. The most common and ubiquitous discontinuity types in rock masses arise from depositional stratification, known as bedding planes, and tension features referred to as joints. Examples of such conditions are depicted in Figure The strength and stability of soft rock masses is generally governed by the strength of the rock material and by discontinuities present within the mass. The strength and stability of hard rock masses is principally governed by discontinuities present within the mass, including joints and beds of soft rock. The presence of even small beds soft rock within hard rock masses can dominate their strength and stability (Figure 3.4). Weathering processes provide mechanical and chemical degradation of rock masses by reducing the strength and durability of the rock material. This process may itself facilitate the development of discontinuities Argillaceous Deposits Various geological materials within hard rock deposits may reduce the quality of quarry products and give rise to quarry wastes in significant volumes. They may also result in reduced stability of rock faces. Among these materials, argillaceous deposits, which include clay- and silt-rich deposits such as claystones, mudstones and siltstones, may occur as overburden, as inter-beds in harder formations (Figure 3.5) or as weathering products. Such materials rapidly succumb to weathering action resulting in weakening of the rock mass and failure of rock slopes. They can also provide a source of soil making material of value in reclamation. Some argillaceous deposits originated as volcanic ash falls (Figure 3.6) and are especially susceptible to weathering action Engineering Soils Geotechnical and Civil Engineers define engineering soils as any particulate material in which the individual constituent grains may be easily separated. If suitable, soils may be engineered to form structures such as slopes, embankments and areas capable of withstanding imposed loads. In the case of quarries, waste materials such as dust and scalpings may be so utilised in reclamation schemes. However, the physical and chemical characteristics of these materials may render them unsuitable for immediate use as media for plant growth. Apart from the lack of essential plant nutrients and organic matter, they are frequently densely compacted. However, they do have potential for soil formation by physical treatments and additions of argillaceous and other materials. 3.2 Outline Options for Reclamation Reclamation of hard rock quarries should aim to provide environmental benefits through the creation of appropriate new landforms and habitats. This is not necessarily the same as aiming to re-create or replicate a particular landscape or habitat type. It may be impractical to produce certain types of landform, for example where insufficient material is available to fill large parts of the final quarry void. Reclamation options will inevitably be constrained by the local contexts of site character and the materials available for achieving restoration. It is generally accepted that only a small percentage of the UK land area can be called natural, the remainder has to some degree been altered by human agency. Concepts critical for consideration when embarking upon reclamation of hard rock quarries are listed in Box 3.1. Forward planning and a duty of care are critical in any reclamation scheme if the fullest benefits are to be realised for human and environmental needs. Conflicts may arise in the selection of the most appropriate end uses for some hard rock quarries. These issues need to be resolved during the initial planning stage of the reclamation project with clear decisions on end-uses and options following consultations with relevant stakeholders. In many cases, it may be possible to reconcile conflicting end-uses and reclamation objectives through clear planning and consultation. 17

23 Box 3.1 Critical concepts for consideration for reclamation of hard rock quarries Key Considerations for Reclamation Most appropriate and beneficial end-use of site. Best value long-term design / scheme on available budget. Attention to the assessment of the stability of slopes and faces Provision of beneficial landforms and habitats. The ecological value of the reclaimed landscape, which may differ from both the surrounding environment and what was there before Continued assessment of the quarry and surrounding landscape in view of changes brought about by quarry. Information about self-establishment of vegetation to assist revegetation design. Provision of appropriate and practical landforms, landscape elements and habitats in the area or are impractical to achieve. Progressive or reclamation. Whilst the main phases of restoration may need to be deferred until the post-extraction period, minor landform sculpting may be possible at the edges of quarries and at final faces, benches etc., Advance reclamation of this kind can be beneficial without adding greatly to costs. 3.3 Opportunities Managed Natural Reclamation Natural geological landscape features such as those at Malham Cove, West Yorkshire, Cheddar Gorge, Somerset; Winnats Pass and Stoney Middleton Gorge, Derbyshire consist of steep, bare hard rock faces with areas of scree, not dissimilar to many worked out quarry profiles. These areas are widely accepted as attractive and beneficial landscape elements. Providing old quarries contain landform features in sympathy with the local landscape, they may need no further reclamation. Providing that they do not present a high hazard-risk, such quarries do not necessarily generate unacceptable or undesirable vistas and therefore may require only minimal site management. Figure 3.7 shows a naturally revegetated former quarry in Millers Dale, Derbyshire. The stability considerations relevant to a selection of after uses are given in Appendix 5, Table Enhancing Landscape and Biodiversity Through Quarry Reclamation It is clear form examples such as Millers Dale that high value landscapes and habitats can result from natural regeneration of hard-rock quarries. This is recognised in reclamation options adopted in some recent cases, such as Kilnsey Quarry, North Yorkshire, where a Carboniferous Limestone site has received only minor landforming of the quarry floor before leaving the site to colonise naturally (see Figure 6.8). In some locations, the timescales required for natural habitat development may make natural regeneration impractical especially in highly visible parts of a quarry. In some extreme environments, for example in upland locations and on free-draining, highly acidic substrates such as slates and some sandstones, the site conditions are such that natural regeneration would require extremely long time-periods to develop even rudimentary vegetation cover. Here, natural regeneration is likely to require assistance by appropriate artificial reclamation and habitat creation techniques. Even on acidic, upland sandstones, however, natural regeneration can produce valuable habitats, such as the moorland and mire habitats which have developed at an abandoned quarry at Kinder Bank, Derbyshire (Figure 3.8). In proposals for new quarries there will be strong requirements for measures that reduce the impact of the quarrying activities on the landscape and ecology of the area. Through careful design and management the biodiversity of the area may be enhanced by the introduction of new habitats that enrich the local ecological context. Techniques for achieving these kinds of benefits through the creation of new landforms and habitats are identified in Section 6 of this guidance and more detailed published guidance is listed in Appendix 4. In long-abandoned quarries where natural regeneration of habitats has taken place, consultations with regulators and stakeholders will assist in determining appropriate afteruses, having regard to the nature conservation value of the site and other possible land uses and features of value. Guidelines on the reclamation of damaged land for nature conservation are provided in Reclamation of Damaged Land for Nature Conservation TSO (1996). This recommends that all areas of damaged land, including former mineral workings, should be 18

24 assessed for their nature conservation interest and, where any interest is known or is suspected to be significant, an ecological, geological and soil survey should be undertaken before any decision is taken on the future use of the site. In many such abandoned quarry sites, the nature conservation value of the habitats present is very high indeed, especially where habitat development has taken place close to other existing habitats of value, for example adjacent to SSSIs, within or close National Parks and so on. Account should also be taken of the potential effect on archaeological resources Landscape and Visual Amelioration A number of appropriate techniques are available to enhance the visual impact of hard rock quarries (DETR, 1997; ECUS, 2001; Williamson et al., 2003; etc) which are listed below: Examples of quarry designs aiming to do this, that were seen during the site surveys are presented in section 6.5. Measures that may be adopted with this intention are listed below: Design of production benches and quarry faces in keeping with surrounding natural landscape & blasting designed to reduce the final face angle. Creation of rollover banks, (requires large volumes of waste substrate and may be combined with restoration blasting). Establishment of vegetation directly against the rock face and toe screes eg by hydroseeding, manure spreading, tree planting. Bench planting of trees and shrubs. Use of restoration blasting to simulate a more natural appearance by creation of buttresses, backwalls and scree slopes and a broken rolling crest line. Where fill material is available, part fill and vegetate parts of the site in particular partial masking of the quarry margins. Manage natural reclamation by creating a suitable landform resulting from final production blast Geological and Archaeological Conservation Features of geological of industrial archaeological importance may be known from the Scoping Studies or they may be revealed during quarrying operations. Retention of areas of the quarry containing these features as exposures or sections may be possible by modifying the agreed scheme of operation and restoration, although in situ preservation may be problematic if large amounts of permitted reserves were to be sterilized. Where permanent exposure of geological of archaeological features is proposed, consideration must be given to how these features will be integrated with other after-uses. Consideration will also be required for the provision of safe access and long-term maintenance of the exposures. (See Mines and Quarries Act, 1999). In the case of features of geological interest, local RIGS groups should be contacted for further advise on the creation and maintenance of permanent exposures. English Heritage, local archaeological groups or local universities should also be contacted for further advice about items of archaeological and historical interest. Guidance on the treatment of archaeological remains is provided in Planning Policy Guidance Note 16 Archaeology and Planning (PPG16). Further advice on the conservation of features of geological significance is offered in a guidance booklet produced by English Nature, Quarry Products Association & Silica & Moulding Sands Association (2003) Built Residential & Industrial Development Pressure of land use in urban areas in recent decades has resulted in development near to quarries. In rural areas, former quarries have also been are favoured locations for siting industrial and utility facilities. Such developments entail potential hazards arising from possible instability of the slopes and faces. A further pressure on the use of abandoned quarries for built construction arises where quarries are abandoned and no funding is available for alternative forms of reclamation. Developing the site for a high economic value may well enable beneficial use of the site, 19

25 where there are no significant planning or other constraints. Such proposals need to be presented for consideration to planners and regulators at the early consultation stages. Where built development is being considered within derelict quarry sites, specialist advice needs to be sought on the engineering implications of the proposal and planning permission will be required. To approve such a proposal the Planning Authorities would normally require a stability report prepared by a competent Geo-specialist (Planning & Building Regulations, PPG23) Landfill Where appropriate, consideration may be given to well-located, planned, designed and operated waste management facilities which can provide the financial resources and materials required to reclaim working and worked out quarries. There is much flexibility in the type of landscape features that can be created by this means. The nature and structure of the surface and bedrock geology and the groundwater conditions are important considerations for landfill development as this ultimately determines the impact of the facility on the environment and what protection measures need to be incorporated in the design and construction of the facility. Where waste management is considered reference should be made to Planning Policy Guidance Note 10 Planning and waste management (PPG10) which draws attention to the importance of the following points: the historical environment, industrial heritage and archaeological remains; the protection of surface and underground water; removal, handling and preservation of topsoil and subsoil, and their replacement at the restoration stage; precautionary measures against the risks of sites suffering from or causing land instability; landscaping of operational areas and facilities; Successful design and construction of landfills has been reported by Gallagher & Needham (2003) in abandoned hard rock quarries by the use of steep wall liner systems. Waste disposal and management sites need planning permission and a licence to operate from the Environment Agency. Conditions are applied to the permission and licence to control and reduce the impact of the site by the use of sound design, construction monitoring and management of the operation of sites. The consideration of nature conservation interests and the potential for wildlife enhancement through habitat creation at landfill sites is also the subject of guidance published by The Wildlife Trusts (Ecoscope 2000). Figure 3.8 Kinder Bank quarry at Derbyshire. 20

26 3.1. Example of natural discontinuities in sedimentary rock, showing 3 well developed joint sets in sandstone. (A56 Accrington) 3.2. Natural discontinuities in dolerite sill caused by cooling following emplacement. (Clee Hill, Shropshire) Example of a major fault plane. (Tunstead Quarry, Derbyshire) 3.4. Example of differential weathering. Ravelling of the weaker mudstone bed has resulted in undermining due to removal of support in the overlying sandstone. (Coal Measures, Sheffield) 3.5. Interbedded mudstone (darker horizon) and limestone. (Llanclys Quarry, Shropshire) 3.6. Weathering out of a clay Wayboard (composed of volcanic ash) interbedded with limestone. (Tunstead Quarry, Derbyshire) 3.7. Millers Dale, Derbyshire: Effective natural reclamation Llanclys Quarry, Shropshire: Progressive reclamation along the site perimeter. 21

27 3.10. Example of a typical hillside hard rock quarry with regular steep face and bench configuration. (Eldon Hill Quarry, Derbyshire) Example of bench robbing on abandonment. (Silverdale Quarry, Lancashire) Smalldale Quarry, Derbyshire: Example of a quarry face produced by Black Powder and face scaling Blast induced fracturing in limestone (natural joint are regular & stained a light brown colour). 22

28 3.4 Constraints Various factors can constrain the suitability of reclamation schemes in particular situations. Some of these are due to safety considerations, the poor availability of materials, economic factors and legal reasons. In the case of new quarries, consideration of reclamation should take place from the onset of the planning process and works required to achieve the scheme should be integrated with quarrying operations. Most reclamation strategies will require modification and updating during the working life of the quarry. It is very difficult to predict the changes in geological conditions, demand for different rock products and advances in technology that may affect the operation of the quarry. Although clear landscape objectives need to be set from the start as part of the project, there needs to be a mechanism which allows for changes to the final reclamation scheme and the implementation of progressive reclamation (Figure 3.9) throughout the operational life of the quarry Soils and Soil Forming Materials Vegetation establishment is dependant on available soil resources. In most hardrock quarries there will be very limited amounts of soils. In the case of older or abandoned quarries, soil resources may well be very limited because soils were not conserved during the early stages of excavation. In cases of shortage, therefore, the use of available soil-forming materials and amendments with imported materials will have to be considered. In new quarries the soils should be stripped, temporarily stored and maintained for later use, subject to their suitability for achieving particular reclamation objectives. Further information about soils is given in Section 6 of this guidance Boundary Constraints Reclamation of older quarries such to achieve integration with the surrounding landscape is often hampered by the presence of recurring benches and faces (Figure 3.10) and quarry margins that abruptly terminate at the planning consent boundary. In some cases, the faces can be very high (much higher than would be acceptable in present day quarrying practice). The faces can be nearly vertical and pose significant hazards to land users both above and within the quarry. Back-filling the excavation may not be a viable option if, no suitable fill is available. In these cases, extending the area of the quarry beyond its existing boundaries may the only available method available to reduce the visual impact. However, there can be reluctance on the part of Planning Authorities to allow extensions, even if there is an overall environmental benefit through visual amelioration and the creation of new habitats. This reticence can arise from a suspicion that the situation has been engineered by the quarry operator in order to strengthen a case for an application to take more reserves. Each case needs to be considered on its merits but, by seeking a mutually acceptable scheme through consultation, and discussion may well benefit both the landscape and ecology of the area Operational Characteristics of Hard Rock Quarries Historically, many hard rock quarries started as relatively shallow excavations into the sides or crests of hills. These quarries physically altered the landscape morphology by steepening hillsides, widening existing valleys and forming stepped profiles on hillslopes (Figure 3.11). Where these excavations extend up slope to the skyline profiles, it is rarely possible to recreate the original landforms. Most hard rock quarries proceeded by excavation taking place up to the limit of the permissible footprint, followed by downwards working. Thus remnant faces, which may be very steep (typically 70 to 90 ) and high extend (up to 20 to 40m) up to or very close to, the mineral extraction limits and site boundaries (Figure 3.12 ). 23

29 Many such quarries impose a large scar on the landscape and are very challenging to reclaim. In addition, although the resulting landforms may be stable, they can be hazardous due to large unprotected drops, rock falls and landslips. Prior to the introduction of the high-energy explosives currently favoured for production blasting, black powder (gun powder) was used. This type of explosive minimises fragmentation of the intact rock material but splits the rock mass along existing planes of weakness. The resultant faces were commonly finished by hand, leaving relatively stable faces (Figure 3.13). Today, quarries generally operate with lifts that are typically a maximum of 10 to 20m in height with face angles of between 70 to 85. The lifts are typically serviced by access benches with a minimum width of 4 to 6m. Hard rock quarries generally produce a much lower value product at smaller volumes and so operate in a different financial environment. The superfluous materials produced in quarrying are generally limited to superficial deposits along with small quantities of scalpings, consisting of clay and altered rock material. Minimal waste is discarded during production as inferior material is commonly blended with higher-grade mineral to form products of various classes and sizes for aggregates. In sites visited during the preparation of this guidance, the volume of waste material on completion of quarrying that was available for landscaping generally comprised 5% to 20% of the total volume of extracted material. In some rare situations this rose to 40% in operations that were undertaken in unfavourable conditions. Thus there is usually a shortage of material available for reclamation and landscaping of the site. Even in situations where it might be acceptable from a planning point of view to allow the importation of fill, this is liable to be curtailed by the high costs, including a liability for landfill tax Blasting methods Most quarries are excavated using production blasting methods (Dalgleish,1989) that provide large volumes of easily excavatable, well-fragmented rock of a suitable size for primary crushing.the blasting and subsequent crushing of the fragmented rock produces considerable quantities of relatively powdery material known as dust (typically <3mm in size) and fines (usually material <75µm in size). Shock waves due to the use of high explosive create a high degree of fragmentation by generating blast induced fractures as well as opening existing discontinuities in the rock mass. The result is a zone of shattered rock (Figure 3.14) extending up to 5 to 10m from each blasthole ( Hustrulid, 1999). While this is not a problem during quarry operations but it is if a face is to remain, and more especially if the final face is directly adjacent to the perimeter of extraction limit. Such faces are liable to become unstable and may require costly remedial stabilisation work. In civil engineering applications, there is an increasing use of pre-split blasting (which takes before the main bulk blast) or post-split (which takes place after the main bulk blast) blasting techniques. Both techniques employ the use of high explosives placed in small diameter holes drilled at the proposed position of the face. This reduces the amount of blast damage to the rock forming the final slope face to about 2m (Matheson,1985). Less penetration occurs with black (gun) powder blasting, but this is not now normally available. Serious damage to the rock mass was reported by ECUS (2002) in experimental restoration blast faces produced by high-energy restoration blasting techniques. This was responsible for the removal of a planned buttress feature due to potential instability and serious ongoing instability in many faces. Open fractures were recorded up to between 7 and 15m from the face Hazards due to Instability of Slopes and Faces The Quarries Regulations 1999 (Anon, 1999) require that all tips (tips, lagoons and stockpiles) and excavations are designed, constructed, operated and maintained in such a way as to protect the health and safety of persons working at a quarry and others who may be affected by quarrying operations. This requires regular Appraisals and Geotechnical 24

30 Assessments of hazards. The Geotechnical Assessments need to be undertaken by a suitably experienced Geotechnical Specialist (Chartered Engineering Geologist or Geotechnical Engineer with at least 3 years of relevant experience). Failure in soil and rock slopes pose a hazard to people and property, may destroy landscape features created as part of a reclamation scheme and cause damage to the ecology on lower areas of slopes. Hence it is vital that from the start of a reclamation project that the geological / geotechnical characteristics of the site are determined to enable assessment to be made of the stability and risks posed by proposed landforms. The risks due to potential instability of slopes, tips and lagoons can be evaluated in a similar manner. Failure in rock mass occurs due to failure along structural discontinuities such as joints and bedding planes. Some examples of typical forms of failure are illustrated in Appendix 5, Table 2. Further consideration of stability is provided in Section 6.4 and the relevant concepts and examples for risk assessment are given in Fell (1994), Butler et al.(2002), Nettleton & McMillan (2000), Hoek (1999). The Mines and Quarries (Tips) Act (1969), and subsequent Quarries Regulations (1999), stipulates that the stability of tips must be ensured by engineering and other controls. The stability and design of these structures is covered in numerous publications, including DoE (1988), and these provide a suitable basis for designing significant landscaping features. 25

31 4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF QUARRY RECLAMATION Once scoping is complete the process needs to continue by defining the appropriate aims and objectives for the reclamation scheme and also undertaking an initial specification for the reclamation scheme. These stages are followed by consultations with stakeholders and advisors and, if required, modified. Planning, effective implementation and the subsequent management of quarry reclamation proposals require clear and purposeful direction. Aims and objectives for reclamation should be clearly formulated and described and should relate to specified end uses. They should be described in terms which take account of environmental and policy contexts, both in the local area and more widely. The need for preliminary aims and objectives early in the process of reclamation planning was highlighted in Chapter 2 of this guidance. The approach encouraged in this guidance is an iterative one and these aims and objectives will certainly need re-visiting at various stages in the process. The following paragraphs explore further the need for clear, purposeful planning and the processes of setting and describing appropriate environmental aims objectives for reclamation. 4.1 Defining Terms Aims and Objectives are much used terms and often become confused. A clear separation and definition of these terms helps to guide thinking and place reclamation proposals in an overt strategic framework against which practical reclamation measures can be determined. It provides a recognisable hierarchy of intentions against which reclamation proposals and the success of implementation can be assessed. The definitions for these terms adopted in this guidance and recommended for the development of reclamation proposals generally are shown in Box 4.1. Box 4.1 Definitions for reclamation proposals Aims: The overarching or strategic purposes for reclamation eg. Safety; impact mitigation; environmental improvement. Aims provide high-level statements of the intended effects of reclamation, in terms of the environmental purposes and desired end uses. Objectives: Statements of the means by which these overarching aims will be achieved. Reclamation targets for a particular site or part or set of proposals eg. Landform/landscape features or character; habitats or species. Implementation of the stated aims and objectives will require the application of a range of reclamation methods or techniques. The detailed techniques required to realise the stated aims and objectives on the ground will be expressed as Reclamation Prescriptions. Where possible, objectives and prescriptions should provide quantified targets to indicate the likely scale of operations and the balance of features the reclaimed site is expected to incorporate. Box 4.2 provides few examples of environmental aims and objectives to illustrate these definitions, further illustrations appear in Chapter 6 of this guidance. 26

32 Box 4.2 Aims, Objectives and Prescriptions: Examples Example 1 : Aim: To ameliorate the visual impact of quarry faces Objective 1: Prescription: Prescription: Objective 2: To break up the strong horizontal structure of final faces and benches to achieve irregular, naturalistic landforms (xx metres/ xx No. benches) Modify final blast patterns to create naturalistic buttress and headwall structure (ECUS 2002) Break up crests of upper faces by mechanical scaling and fragmentation of face edge. To achieve rapid vegetation cover in visually sensitive parts of the quarry (xx ha) Prescription: Apply ameliorated topsoils to upper rollover slopes to support rapid vegetation establishment Prescription: Hydroseed inaccessible, highly visible slopes where topsoils cannot be applied. Example 2 : Aim: To increase local populations of scarce species Objective 1: Create six new ponds on site to provide amphibian breeding sites Prescription: Excavate ponds to specified profiles in proximity to existing ponds on site margins Objective 2: Create suitable nesting sites for peregrine falcon (xx No. sites) Prescription: Identify and retain existing cliff ledges suitable for peregrine nesting Prescription: Create new peregrine nesting sites by selective mechanical scaling of final faces Example 3 : Aim: To contribute to local Biodiversity Action Plan targets for creation/restoration of locally important habitats Objective 1: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Objective 2: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Create 25 ha of species-rich calcareous/limestone grassland. Prepare well-drained slopes with low-nutrient (to be specified) substrate Reduce compaction of soils as necessary by surface cultivation Apply thin layer (specify) of low-nutrient topsoil to areas with poor soil structure Allocate areas suitable for non-intervention and natural colonisation In other areas, sow specified seed mix for limestone grassland vegetation Create 10ha of new locally native woodland habitat. Prepare slopes with low-nutrient (to be specified) substrate Modify drainage as appropriate for target woodland types (to be specified) Plant locally native trees and shrub mix (to be specified) for target woodland types, in specified manner (spacing etc.) 4.2 Preliminary Aims and Objectives Preliminary aims and objectives should be defined as early as possible in planning for reclamation. Typically, even before any desk study or preliminary site surveys have been performed, a great deal will be known about the constraints and existing environmental interests on or near a quarry site. These should be briefly reviewed at the beginning of the reclamation planning process. This will provide the impetus for an iterative process of setting and reviewing aims and objectives and developing proposals for their implementation. It will also provide a starting point for constructive consultation with planners and other stakeholders. 4.3 Setting and Describing Aims and Objectives The aims and objectives of reclamation should be described in relevant contextual terms and should reflect a balanced consideration of prevailing constraints and opportunities. Relevant contexts may include a wide range of considerations, some of which will be specific to a site and its immediate surrounding landscape and ecological context. The following list identifies a number of contextual considerations which should be accommodated in determining and describing aims and objectives. 27

33 Safety first. All reclamation proposals must meet legal health and safety requirements. In particular, an operator has a responsibility to ensure that accessible slopes and faces are left in a stable condition, consistent with the desired end use for the site and any likely informal or unplanned site uses. Desirable end uses. Potential end uses for a site are various and a range of these are identified in Chapter 3 of this guidance (Opportunities and Constraints). This document is most concerned with environmental end uses, in particular with ecology or biodiversity and landscape and visual amenity. All likely end uses should be appropriate to the local environmental and policy context. Chapter 1 of this document describes the primary legal and policy instruments which should be considered, including national and local planning policy, wildlife legislation, Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs) etc. Environmental site designations. Land within or close to the site may be of designated importance for landscape or nature conservation. Many hard rock quarries fall within or close to National Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs), Special Areas for Conservation (SACs), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) etc. The importance of these designations and the interests they protect should be reflected in reclamation aims and objectives. Local environmental designations should not be regarded simply as a constraint to reclamation and possible end uses. Rather, they should be seen as providing enhanced opportunities for successful restoration of a site to its local landscape and ecological context. They provide a ready guide to appropriate reclamation aims and objectives which are likely to be welcomed by planning authorities, statutory agencies and local environmental interest groups and communities. Achievability. End uses, and any associated reclamation aims must be clearly achievable and suited to the site. Proposals for water sports, for example, are not likely to be feasible in limestone quarries where extraction has been mostly above the water table. Some habitat targets will require specific geologies or soil conditions, such as limestone grassland, heathland etc. The properties of the local rock mass may constrain the range of features that it is feasible to create. Local landscape and ecology. Similarly, the detailed physiognomy and ecology of the local landscape provides a valuable guide to appropriate and achievable environmental aims and objectives. The importance of local landscape setting and biodiversity resources is emphasised elsewhere in this guidance and should be a primary consideration when setting and describing reclamation aims and objectives. Ecological objectives are likely to include targets for the creation or replication if local semi-natural habitats and vegetation types. Site constraints and opportunities. The consideration of site constraints and opportunities is described in Chapter 3 of this document. The opportunities presented by a clean-slate landscape, for example, include the creation of engineered landforms as suitable substrates for habitats of local or national nature conservation value. The availability of suitable soil-forming materials on may constrain site objectives, however, and may determine options for landscape and habitat treatments for reclamation. Consultation. Consultation and assessment of stakeholder requirements (see Chapter 1of this document) can be useful for identifying the major constraints and opportunities for reclamation and will provide a good guide to the most appropriate end uses and site aims and objectives. If reclamation proposals are clearly defined and described in terms of stakeholder interests at the earliest stage, it will help consultees to understand what to expect from the final proposals. It will also assist them in understanding the perspectives of other stakeholders and promote consensus and reasonable compromise. Target Audiences. Aims and objectives should be described with the target audience in mind. In most cases, the primary audience will be a Minerals Planning Authority. The audience may be more varied and complex, however, and may include statutory environmental agencies, local interest groups, access forums etc. Desk Study Findings. Most or all of these considerations should have been explored in the initial desk study and preliminary surveys outlined in Chapter 2 of this guide. 28

34 These early studies will have identified key existing interests at the site, for environmental and other interests. The findings will assist in determining desirable landforms and habitats and target species, significant site constraints and primary opportunities for reclamation. Prioritise. Where multiple end uses are considered or desirable, reclamation objectives may be in conflict, in which case the purposes for reclamation would need to be prioritised. For example, where a site sits in a heavily designated landscape of high nature conservation value, biodiversity aims and objectives should be a high priority. On urban or urban fringe sites, end uses and aims associated with commercial development and employment may be appropriate. At some sites, the proximity of human populations, sensitive land uses and site accessibility may make slope/face stability and safety the primary concerns. Even if the primary priorities for reclamation appear to be obvious, it is important to undertake assessment of priorities for the site. Commercial end uses and stable slopes may be high priorities, but they may also compatible with a range of environmental objectives. Priority assessment might take the form of a more or less formal critical factor analysis, assigning relative scores or grading to the current interests, impacts and potential aims and objectives for the site. This will make explicit the various reclamation options for a site and will clearly show the interests and concerns which have been considered in preparing appropriate reclamation proposals. Operational Constraints. Operational constraints, like other site constraints, are described more fully in Chapter 3 of this document. Site operations should not unduly influence the selection of site restoration options. They may have implications for the timescales and phasing of proposals. For example, if site plant are present on site, these areas are unlikely to be restored until late in the programme and may affect the sequence of other reclamation activities. In most cases, however, such operational circumstances should not be seen as critical considerations for determining the overall reclamation aims and objectives. Phasing and Zoning. Operational constraints and possible site zoning or phasing for reclamation works should be considered at the very beginning of the process of preparing reclamation proposals. The working lifetime of most hard-rock quarries is measured in many decades and there will be opportunities for constructive and creative reclamation long before the site is closed Objectives for Stability The faces and slopes that are created to form landscape features in a reclamation scheme need to possess sufficient stability not to pose a threat to formal and informal land users. The hazard should be no greater than would be normal for the landform in the area and slopes and faces should not require more monitoring or maintenance than similar land forms locally. The amount of instability that can be tolerated depends on the height of the slope or face, the land uses of the area affected by the instability and the magnitude of the instability. Methods of assessing the likely style of instability and of reducing the potential instability by the use of special blasting techniques are described in Chapter 5] of this report. Remedial measures that may be used to improve the stability condition of rock slopes and faces are described in Chapter 6. Some examples of the relationships between landform types and the prevailing ground conditions are shown in Box 4.3 and the stability considerations of various hard rock quarry features and landform design elements are presented in Table 6.1 and Appendix 5, Table 2. 29

35 Box 4.3: Some examples of ground conditions and what landforms might be achieved. GROUND CONDITIONS ACHIEVABLE LANDFORMS Zone of Argillaceous material Planted scree slope. Zone of faulted &/or heavily fractured rock mass Slope feature. Closely jointed rock mass Non-linear features i.e. incorporate bays with scree support or protrusions to support less stable sections. Faces may require scaling and other stabilisation measures. Intact uniform strong rock mass Steep rock faces. Bedded units dipping at 20 to 70 into the quarry Slope cut back parallel to bedding surfaces Objectives for Landscape Reclamation The overall aims for landscape reclamation will depend on the circumstances affecting the quarry and the overall reclamation aims and objectives. They may incorporate mitigation for visual impacts or landscape impacts, the creation of new high quality landscapes for a range of new uses or the enhancement of biodiversity. It is worth noting that landscape and ecological objectives will often overlap. In some cases, the landscape objective to create visually appropriate vegetation cover will coincide with ecological objectives to replicate local habitats of value and both will require the adoption of the same reclamation techniques. Depending on the landscape aims and the outcome of any detailed technical surveys (see Chapter 5 of this guide), a series of site specific landscape targets should be developed. Box 4.4 provides a number of likely examples of landscape reclamation objectives. Box 4.4 Possible landscape reclamation objectives Objectives Integrate the quarry with its landscape setting Replicate local landforms Screening Protect existing important landscape features Link quarry face with floor Final landform and site layout appropriate for end uses. Explanation Use landform, vegetation and other landscape elements such as boundary features and water bodies in such a way as to reflect the landscape character of the surroundings. May be appropriate where existing local landforms are judged to be important landscape elements. It can also help to achieve integration of the quarry with the landscape setting. Can serve to mitigate the visual impacts of quarrying, both during operations and after reclamation and may also contribute to integrating the quarry with its landscape setting. Important features may include mature trees, hedgerows, woodlands, natural watercourses and topographic features such as ridge lines. This may be achieved using slopes, vegetation and the continuation or repetition of landscape elements from slopes onto the quarry floor. Development end uses are likely to be concentrated on the quarry floor. The stability of faces and the proximity of these uses to reclaimed quarry faces should be considered. Other considerations should include access routes through the quarry and from the surrounding area, the requirement for public access, safety and interpretation. Progressive reclamation Retain some existing quarry elements. Create sustainable low-maintenance landscapes. On-going, progressive reclamation during the operational life of the quarry will allow the landscape to mature earlier and will help mitigate visual impacts at an early stage. In some circumstances existing quarry elements may be developed as interesting landscape features in their own right. Others may be of importance for wildlife or for geological conservation. Landscapes requiring low levels of input for long-term management are more likely to be achievable and can be consistent with other objectives such as high biodiversity values. See also Chapter 7: Aftercare and Long Term Management. 30

36 4.3.3 Objectives for Ecological Reclamation Ecological objectives for reclamation will be determined by reference to the overall restoration aims. They will also reflect a consideration of the strategic policy context (local environmental designations, BAPs etc) and the findings of the consultations and technical survey processes described in this guidance. Ecological objectives are most likely to be expressed in terms of target habitats or species, although some may relate to ecological processes such as natural colonisation, hydrological functioning or soil formation/development. Habitat objectives may be general such as the creation of a hedgerow network across the site. Or they can be specific such as the creation of a specified area of a particular National Vegetation Classification (NVC) community (e.g. CG2 calcareous grassland). Species based objectives will often be expressed as targets for particular habitats, environmental conditions, habitat structures or management which a species requires to meet basic needs for feeding, shelter and breeding; or a habitat or vegetation type required to sustain the species e.g. herb-rich grassland for orchids. Box 4.5 provides some examples of likely ecological objectives or targets for reclamation in hard rock quarries. Box 4.5 Possible ecological reclamation targets for hard rock quarries Habitats Sub-types (and synonyms) Woodlands and scrub Broadleaved woodlands and scrub on acid or calcareous soils Native pine and birch woods Wet woodlands and scrub Grassland Neutral grasslands and hay meadows Flood meadows Rush pasture Acid grasslands or grass heath Calcicolous grasslands (Limestone grassland) Water bodies Ponds/lagoons Ditches Stream courses Wetlands Fen, marsh and swamp Flood meadow Seepages and flushes Bogs/ Upland mire (not technically creatable) Reedbeds Heathland and moorland Lowland dry Calluna heath Upland heath or moorland Species groups: Important species or sub-groups: Mammals Bats, water vole, otter Cliff nesting birds Peregrine, raven, chough Reptiles Adder, grass snake Amphibians Great crested newt Invertebrates Dragonflies, butterflies 4.4 Outline Proposals for Reclamation Following the desk study, consultations and preliminary surveys, the consideration of site opportunities and constraints, potential aims and objectives, it should be possible to prepare moderately detailed Outline Reclamation Proposals for the site. The detailed site investigations described in Chapter 5 of this guide are not required for setting aims and objectives or for the preparation of outline proposals which can be based on existing knowledge of site constraints and opportunities identified through appropriate desk study. Outline Proposals will be of value in progressing consultations, prior to committing to the preparation of final proposals. It will also be of value in planning the likely resource requirements for implementing final reclamation proposals. Requirements for Outline Proposals are described in greater detail in Chapter 6 of this guide. 31

37 5. DETAILED SITE INVESTIGATIONS The third stage of the process of preparing a reclamation plan is to devise the final plan. Before this, detailed information to enable the final plan to be created needs to be obtained. Constraints on the future use of the site, for example due to poor ground conditions, areas of contamination or steep or potentially unstable slopes, as well as opportunities presented by the site, like species of ecological value or features of archaeological importance, need to the identified. In addition, structures and materials that could be used to the benefit of the reclamation scheme may be present. All potential hazards need to be carefully considered in the planning of the investigations, and assessments made of their significance to the execution and suitability of the final scheme. The data to be collected depends on the proposals, and needs to follow from the aims and objectives of the reclamation scheme. It will also depend on the data already available and the stage in the life of the quarry when the reclamation plan is being drawn up. The results of previous investigations should be considered and any gaps in knowledge and understanding identified. Certain data are routinely collected to comply with safety requirements, or to enable assessment of the amount of resource available for quarrying. In the case of planned quarries there may be uncertainty in these data that needs to be taken into account. Additional surveys should normally form part of a feasibility study for outline or draft proposals for reclamation. In practice, they may also sometimes be continued in parallel with the scheme development, to inform detailed design decisions. Requirements for additional surveys will be determined by the options being considered for reclamation at a particular site. For example, areas of existing nature conservation interests which cannot be retained within the operational quarry or final reclaimed landscape will often require more detailed work to determine any special requirements to utilise or replicate that existing interest in reclamation proposals. Areas proposed for habitat creation may require detailed survey to identify whether any notable species are already present. Guidance is available on appropriate methods for Environmental Assessment for mineral extraction and reclamation schemes eg Institute of Environmental Assessment (1995); Land Use Consultants (1996). Data gathered from site investigations should build on the information gathered from desk studies, to refine the details of the reclamation proposals for a site. All surveys should work from standard base maps at an appropriate scale for mapping detailed features eg 1: Surveys should also record opportunities for landscaping and habitat creation, drawing on observations of existing interest, ground conditions, and existing physical and ecological relationships on and off site. Acquiring some of the data will usually require the specialist services of geotechnical engineers, ecologists and landscape architects. Data about technical expertise is given in Section 1 of the guidance. Data acquisition should be staged so that the data obtained at one stage influences the data collected at the next stage. 5.1 Environmental assessment Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a formal procedure used to assess the impacts of development proposals or significant land-use change. It is a requirement before planning permission can be granted for certain types of development including quarries greater than 25ha in area. Quarries less than this area may need an assessment, depending upon whether they are likely to have significant environmental effects. Usually a new EIA will be required for the 15 yearly review of permission. Some Mineral Planning Authorities require fully developed restoration plans to be made at this stage, but some do not. Whatever after use is envisaged it may need Planning Permission quite separate from the permission given for the operation of the quarry Guidance on the objectives and procedures of Environmental Impact Assessment is provided by HMSO (1995) and Morris and Thervel (1995) Usually Environmental Impact Assessment will include consideration of the visual impact and the generation of noise, dust and traffic and impacts upon ecology, including valuable habitats and important species. Impacts upon ground- and surface water should also be taken into 32

38 account. The intention is first to create a record of the baseline conditions, against which the effects of changes can be measured. Potential benefits of schemes, for example the improvement of visual appearance of a site, the removal of a problem of contaminated land or an increase in the biodiversity of an area would also be considered. Environmental Impact Assessment needs to be carried out in consultation with the Mineral Planning Authority, to ensure inclusion of all relevant factors. English Nature and other statutory consultees should also be consulted on the scope and content of any EIA. 5.2 Survey Requirements In most cases information will be required about the landscape character, ecology, geology and archaeology of the area. In addition, data about the geotechnical character of the rock forming faces and slopes and the availability and character of any waste or other materials potentially suitable for use in any reclamation scheme will also be required. Depending on the situation and proposals, it may also be necessary to determine the groundwater and surface water conditions. In some cases information about the opportunities for importing materials to the site may be cogent. Site survey information should comprise a walkover survey, desk study and detailed investigation (Harris 1996, DoE cn. 1996). The procedures are explained for civil engineering construction in BS5930:1999, and are similar to those for quarry reclamation. A desk study is carried out in order to collate all available documentary information about the site. The following information should be obtained. Much of this information may already have been gathered during the earlier stages of planning for reclamation (see Chapter 2 of this guidance). Planning policies and landscape designations related to the site and the surrounding area. Land ownership and other rights over land, including rights of way. Current land-uses, of the site and surrounding land. Current infrastructure (roads, railways, utility services). Information about the geology, hydrology, hydrogeology, soils and climate. Position of any shafts and mine workings that are present. All former uses of the site and surrounding land. Waste disposal practices and licences issued. Industrial archaeology, including any designation or listing of site features. Any reports on the ecology of the site. Any existing landscape character assessments of the area. Previous site investigation reports. Detailed investigation and surveys. The walkover survey assists verification of existing documentary information and provides an image of the current status of the quarry site. The type of information gained from a walkover survey might include: Current land uses. Character of the surrounding landscape. The visual impact of the site. The presence of buildings, with an assessment of their structural soundness and of their historic value and potential for re-use. The presence and condition of other structures, e.g. walls or bridges. The nature of materials at the surface. The presence or absence of vegetation, the nature of the vegetation and an assessment of its ecological and landscape value. Deposits of waste material, especially that liable to be suitable for use as fill. The existing landforms, the constraints and opportunities they offer. Soil or potential soil substitute resources available on-site. Signs of contamination, e.g. coloured materials, lack of vegetation, presence of tanks or other containers that may have held or still hold hazardous material, hydrocarbon odours. Surface hydrology, signs of erosion and deposition and site drainage system. 33

39 The presence of utilities including electricity and telecom cables, gas or water mains. The presence and condition of any water or slurry retaining structures. After preliminary assessment of the data, advice from a range of experts may well be required to evaluate the significance of the findings and to make preliminary interpretations. Various data sources should be accessed, as suggested by BS5930:1999. Topograghic maps provide much useful information about land use, topography and hydrology. An examination of the maps published at different times and at different scales, can provide much useful data about historical land uses, erosion and deposition and heave or subsidence of the land surface. Geological maps and the accompanying memoirs also are also a valuable source of data. Again all editions should be examined in order to assess changes in land uses and the positions of wells, shafts and boreholes and of geological features such as outcrops of bed rock. Such maps require expert interpretation to determine the geological materials and structure of the area. Aerial photographs and remotely sensed images should also be consulted for changes in land-use, vegetation and site drainage. Collation and analysis of these data should inform the design of the detailed investigations. Typical detailed investigations undertaken at a site comprise: Topographical survey, including faces and waste heaps etc. Survey of rock mass discontinuities Investigation of geological conditions. Investigation of groundwater conditions Assessment of the stability condition of rock faces, slopes and structures. Record and assessment of drainage conditions. Location and assessment of archaeological features. Record of the contamination status of ground and waters. Ecological assessment. Landscape character assessment Landscape and visual impact assessment. The acquisition and interpretation of these data will require the input of experts in the relevant fields. It may be necessary to drill boreholes or undertake geophysical investigations. The assessment of temporal changes may necessitate monitoring of rock mass movements, water levels or pressures and of surface processes over periods of time. Typical detailed site investigations are listed in Box 5.1). More information on ecological survey and evaluation can be found in Byron (2000). Land Use Consultants (1996), DoT (1993), English Nature (1994), Institute of Environmental Assessment (1995), JNCC (1993), Ratcliffe (1997), Rodwell (1991 et seq,), UK Biodiversity Steering Group (1995, ), Box 5.1: Detailed site investigations Vegetation/habitat surveys Detailed information is likely to be required to; Provide base line data for comparison with subsequent monitoring. Identify future translocation areas and inform retention of existing important features e.g. habitats which cannot easily be re-created. Identify potential field trial areas. Identify areas with potentially undesirable colonists. Identify communities present within the quarry and areas which could be used as potential seed sources. Identify existing vegetation communities occurring on or adjacent to the site through detailed botanical surveys (Phase 2 survey and NVC). Surveys should identify any species of nature conservation concern including protected, rare or scarce species as well as National or local BAP s habitats/species. Identify local landforms and NVC communities suitable for replication within quarry reclamation. Faunal surveys Locate areas within the quarry which may be occupied by protected species or species of conservation concern. eg. bat roosts in quarry faces, great crested newts in lagoons. Identify how they can be accommodated in the reclamation design. Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment Identify significant impacts on the landscape and views and how these could be mitigated throughout the life of the quarry including its after use. The technique separates landscape effects (changes to landscape character) from visual effects (changes to views). It is a technique requiring a level of judgement and should be undertaken by a suitably experienced person. General guidance on such an assessment is given in LI with IEMA (2002) Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment. 34

40 Landscape Character Assessment Assessment of the landscape setting for the development. This technique helps to give an understanding of what the surrounding landscape is like and how it came about. It can aid decisions on changes to that landscape, such as quarry reclamation, so that they do not undermine what is characteristic about it. A desk study is an important part of the process of landscape character assessment to build up a database of information and provide a context for the assessment. Information reviewed should include existing landscape character assessments of the area, landscape designations as well as general background literature on the landscape. Also there should be a review of aerial photos and map information, covering physical factors such as geology and landform and cultural influences such as land use. This desk study will inform an understanding of the patterns of different landscape elements which create the character of a landscape. Depending on the level of detail and the area covered, it is possible that there will be more than one area of different landscape character within a quarry setting. Field surveys carried out in a rigorous manner will further inform the understanding of the landscape character and confirm the boundaries between areas of different character. Refer to (Scottish Natural Heritage) with Countryside Agency (2002) Landscape Character Assessment Guidance for England and Scotland for full details of carrying out such an assessment. Physical surveys Topography Soils Hydrology Engineering requirements Other Interests/Considerations Palaeontological interest Archaeological and geological interest Potential for control of fire Safety Access Existing use by local people Adjacent land uses Topographic Character of the Area Detailed topographical survey are likely to be required as this will determine the overall design of the Masterplan and identify scope for any modifications. Identify stored soil reserves and soil forming materials (SFM). Information on chemical and physical characters will be required to assess their suitability for creation of semi-natural habitats including quantity, fertility, ph, organic matter etc. Soil stores/reserves may also provide important seed sources for use in the reclamation process. The hydrology of a site will dictate what is feasible to a large extent when creating both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Detailed information on local climate, inflows, outflows, seepages, water quality, and existing areas of water are likely to be required. Hydrological monitoring may be needed to determine overall flood levels after site closure. The presence of any engineering constraints which may limit the reclamation process eg access, types of machinery available etc.. Identify areas of any palaeontoiogical interest eg. presence of any fossilized trees, pollen profiles, seed. This may be of particular importance where peat overlies stone reserves. Identify any features of earth science or archaeological interest. Recently exposed features may qualify for non-statutory or statutory protection e.g RIG s and SSSI s. More detailed guidance for archaeological considerations is provided in the Archaeological Investigations Code of Practice for mineral operators (Confederation of British Industry, 1991) Especially important on moorland and heathland sites; includes potential fire breaks and water availability. All activities relating to reclamation will need to consider safety issues. Some activities may be considered too unsafe (for example face scaling) and alternatives may need to be considered. It is essential that safe access to restoration areas is considered. Access will be required for surveys, maintenance, monitoring, management (including livestock) etc. Access infrastructure for site operation and reclamation may also be required for long-term management. Potential for future accessibility should be assessed. Identify current management and activities in proximity to the site, which may affect reclamation objectives. eg. large water bodies may attract birds and present birdstrike risks for a nearby airfield. Topographic information is required in order to assess the impact of the reclaimed quarry within the landscape and to determine the types of land features that would assist the quarry to blend into the local landscape. A distinction needs to be made between landscape and visual impact assessments. The visual impact of the site will need to be considered from near and distant view points The relief and size of features within the landscape, land-uses in the area and the locations of settlements, roads and other means of access will all be relevant. An additional factor of significance in visual impact is the colour and physical form of any bare rock surfaces that form part of a scheme. Such considerations may necessitate an assessment of the effects of weathering action and lichen growth on the colour of rock 35

41 surfaces. It should also be remembered that the blast methodology used to create faces has a significant effect on the form and physical appearance of rock faces. Without post-blasting face treatment, for example, pre-split blasting usually results in faces that have a very unnatural appearance. The opportunities for the provision of temporary and permanent reduction of visual impact by screening with vegetation need to be considered. This requires knowledge of the growth rates, site requirements, appearance and needs for post-planting care of trees, bushes and other plants. The different appearance of the landscape and of the vegetation in question needs to be taken into account Ecological Character of Area A reclamation scheme may provide opportunities for enhancing the biodiversity of an area through attention to the requirements of particular plants and animals through habitat creation. Similarly, measures to discourage certain species from colonising areas may be needed to achieve the desired results. The opportunities for providing the locality with a nature trail or similar facility may be considered. In some cases it may be necessary to carry out planting and growth trials at the site to assess the success of various options. It may be necessary to establish the vegetation of an area in stages Reclamation Materials The successful colonisation of an area by suitable plants requires suitable soil conditions to be created. Thus attention needs to be given to the availability of soils and potential soil forming materials. The chemical and physical condition and the nutrient content of such materials needs to be determined, and consideration given to treatments that may enhance their suitability. The storage conditions for soils which must be stockpiled must also be considered. In many cases waste materials may be available that can be used for this purpose. The quantities and types of materials depend on the depth of overburden that needs to be removed from above the rock and also on the processing required to prepare the product for the market. The assessment may therefore require input from mineral processing engineers and knowledge of the quantities of waste liable to be produced. The local availability of soil, and potential soil making materials and fill may also be important for carrying out some reclamation schemes. The disposal of waste by landfill may be feasible in some cases. The possibility of colonisation of sites from adjacent sites needs also to be assessed. Therefore, surveys of the habitats and spread of seeds within the neighbourhood may be required Determination of the Geological Site Conditions Assessments of ground conditions are based on site investigations comprising mapping of surface exposures and observations made from boreholes. Non-intrusive geophysical techniques might also be used. Ground investigations provide information at discrete points within a site, from which geological experts construct an inferred geological model based on the available data. The degree of uncertainty in the geological model diminishes as the actual geology underlying the site is revealed during quarrying operations. Hence, the restoration plans for a quarry may require modification and development to take account of any changes in the conceptual geological model. The Observational Approach described by Nicholson et al, (1999) should be adopted and used to plan and modify ongoing and proposed reclamation plans for hard rock quarries. It is essential that geological information is collated in a systematic manner during the operational phase of the quarry operation. This is primarily to ensure economic and safe working of the site but it also contributes data on which to base decisions about the selection, design and implementation of the final reclamation scheme. A thorough and clear understanding of the geological and structural conditions must be achieved by methodically compiling and interpreting all available data. It may also be necessary to acquire additional data specifically for the purpose of undertaking the reclamation works. With application of the 36

42 observational approach, the achievability of landforms may well become apparent as the geological and structural conditions unfold Slope and Face Stability The nature of the rocks, soils and waste materials forming slopes and faces affects the appearance and stability of these features. The presence of weaker zones of rock or soil within the mass may have a significant effect on stability. It should be appreciated that zones within the rock or soil mass with a high susceptibility to weathering action may exert a strong control over the stability of faces and slopes. An assessment of the presence, orientations, spacings and character of rock mass discontinuities will provide an insight into the style and likelihood of instability of rock faces. It may be necessary to carry out excavation trials to provide faces of optimum stability. Groundwater conditions, including the height of the water table at various stages of the scheme and the response of groundwater conditions to precipitation events all affect the stability of rock and soil slopes. Measures may be required to control these and surface runoff which can result in excessive surface erosion Post- Quarrying Land Uses The assessment of the potential for certain post-quarrying land-uses may require specific data to be acquired. For example quarry reclamation may provide the opportunity to develop educational or recreational facilities based on ecological, geological, archaeological and industrial resources. Such an assessment may require advice from experts in these fields. Similarly, other land-uses may require the acquisition of other specialist information about the ground and groundwater conditions. The latter would be especially important if any water features are being contemplated. 5.3 Extended Survey Prorames Surveys may highlight the need for more detailed investigations/monitoring associated particular interests. Population assessment of selected faunal groups may be required. For example an existing lagoon which requires re-siting may support populations of the protected great crested newt. Population monitoring will be required to establish the importance of the water body and associated habitat before reclamation proposals can be finalised. Other monitoring programmes may be required to inform the overall reclamation design. For example, hydrological monitoring may be required to inform habitat design for new wetland habitat or to ensure appropriate site drainage for new terrestrial habitats. Other monitoring studies may include identifying areas subject to current and future dust blows. Existing areas of conservation importance may need to be protected from dust blows whilst other areas affected by dust blows may affect choice of habitat design. Long-term records of groundwater levels and of surface water run-off should be kept in order to assist in the design of the final landforms and features. The modifications to these observations brought about by the quarrying operations themselves need to be taken into account. Changes to local habitats and plant life due to disturbance by the presence and operation of the quarry may also need to be assessed. 5.4 Feasibility Assessment and Review Once these data have been incorporated with the body of existing data, the feasibility of the proposed reclamation scheme and the method of execution need to the re-assessed, and necessary changes made. Such changes may themselves give rise to the need for further investigations. 37

43 6. RECLAMATION PROPOSALS It is often helpful to prepare Outline Proposals for reclamation at the eariest possible stage of quarry development. Following the desk study, consultations and preliminary surveys (Section 2 of this guide), the consideration of site opportunities and constraints (Section 3) and of potential aims and objectives for reclamation (Section 4), it should be possible to prepare a moderately detailed Outline Reclamation Proposals for the site. The purpose of an Outline Proposals document is to present reclamation proposals in draft form for consideration by consultees, stakeholders and site operators. An outline proposal will be of use for more detailed consultation, prior to committing to the preparation of fuller final proposals. It will also be of value in planning the likely resource requirements for implementing final reclamation proposals. The final stage of this process is to draw up the final proposals and the put these out for consultation with stakeholders. 6.1 Outline Proposals The final stages of the process are to draw up the final proposals and then put these out to consultations with stakeholders. An outline proposal should briefly describe what is known about the site, its operation and its existing interests, and the local planning and environmental contexts. It should review the desk study and analysis of opportunities and constraints and describe the proposed aims and objectives for reclamation at the site. Where possible, it should also give some indication of the methods and techniques which are expected to be required to realise these proposals. Most importantly, Outline Proposals should incorporate a Draft Reclamation Masterplan for the site, identifying site end uses, landforms and habitats for reclamation. Requirements for Masterplanning are described in greater detail in this section of the document. The desk study and preliminary surveys will have identified any significant gaps in information or understanding and the Outline Proposals should make these clear, together with proposals for technical surveys or monitoring studies which may be required to remedy the shortfalls. Possible requirements for more detailed study are described in Section 5 of this guide and further consideration is given to the content of final proposals for reclamation in this chapter. Box 6.1 provides suggested minimum contents for Outline Reclamation Proposals. Box 6.1 Minimum contents for Outline Reclamation Proposals Site location, tenure, details Policy and legal background Desk study findings (incl. consultations) Preliminary survey results Preliminary reclamation aims and end-uses Site constraints physical, legal. Policy, operational Indicative summary of reclamation resources - outline soils strategy Outline/preliminary reclamation objectives and targets Outline reclamation methods/techniques Proposals for experimental treatments Draft Reclamation Masterplan Other plans of environmental interests/constraints Outline long-term management and monitoring arrangements Indicative reclamation programme Requirements for further surveys and monitoring 38

44 6.2 Final Proposals for Reclamation Review and Re-statement of Aims and Objectives Desk studies, field studies and the Outline Proposals will guide the preparation of more detailed proposals for site reclamation. Before finalising the proposals, a pause is valuable for taking stock and building into the final proposals everything that has been learnt so far. This review should form the first part of the final proposals. It should describe the studies, consultations and analyses of options undertaken and lead clearly to a restatement of the aims and objectives for reclamation, revised as necessary to take account of stakeholder requirements, feasibility assessments etc Feasibility Assessment Before proceeding to a detailed account of the Final Reclamation Proposals it is important to review the findings of the detailed site investigations in some detail and to assess the likely feasibility of proposals described at the outline stage. The final proposals will need to balance opportunities, constraints and technical feasibility. Section 5 of this guidance describes the kinds of technical information and site investigations which may be required for this feasibility assessment to be carried out. Box 6.2 Final Reclamation Proposals SUGGESTED PLAN STRUCTURE & CONTENTS Part A: Site Assessment and Review 1. Introduction Site location (plan) Tenure Summary site description geology, major site operations, mineral extraction, major working methods, major environmental features Legal and planning status of site Existing reclamation proposals 2. Legal and policy context for reclamation Relevant legislation and legal obligations Strategic policy MPGs; Local Plan policy Landscape and biodiversity policy Protected areas/sites Protected species 3. Consultations Major stakeholders Local community Technical consultations Environment priorities Suggested end-uses and reclamation objectives 4. Site investigations Desk studies existing biological data, designated/ protected sites Existing reclaimed areas objectives and methods; locations; existing character Ecological surveys habitats; species; established vegetation and ecological value Landscape and visual assessment Local ecological and landscape context Hydrological studies - site drainage & characteristics Geotechnical studies/stability audit Geological conservation Site topography - primary landforms Reclamation materials audit soils; soil-forming materials Access Monitoring studies Part B: Reclamation Proposals 5. Reclamation aims and objectives Opportunities and constraints Proposed end-uses rationale Ecological objectives and targets rationale Landscape objectives Other objectives and targets 6. Feasibility assessment 7. Reclamation methods and techniques Primary landform creation Soils and soil-forming materials - Soils strategy Vegetation establishment Zoning and phasing Aftercare Long-term management Experimental treatments Monitoring 8. Plan monitoring and review 9. Long-term management Prescriptions & arrangements Drawings Reclamation Masterplan Site zoning and Phasing Existing topography Site drainage and hydrology Existing habitats/species interests Landscape and visual assessment Stability Audit Appendices Detailed survey and monitoring data Indicative reclamation programme 39

45 6.2.3 Preparing final proposals The following sections provide a more detailed account of the likely contents of final reclamation proposals. Box 6.2 shows an idealised plan structure and contents for a full reclamation plan. This clearly reflects the outline proposal requirements described in Section 4 of this guide, but shows the greater level of detail required for final reclamation proposals. This is intended to be a generalised guide or checklist of issues as the specific circumstances of a particular site or reclamation proposal will dictate the requirements. In this example, the structure is divided into two parts. Part A covers matters relating to site investigations which are considered in this guidance at Sections 2,3 and 5. Part B relates to the development of proposals, including setting reclamation aims and objectives (Section 4 of this guidance) and descriptions of the techniques to be applied to achieve reclamation this section. The following sections consider some of the principles of design for environmental after-uses, including landscape and ecological design principles. Examples of common or likely targets for landscape and ecological reclamation are also considered, together with broad indications descriptions of typical reclamation landforms and reclamation techniques which are suited to achieving ecological and landscape objectives. The aim of this section is to elucidate and illustrate some of the primary considerations for landscape and ecological reclamation to assist in focusing and answering fundamental questions of what features a reclamation scheme might include, where they might be located or distributed within a site and what techniques might be appropriate to achieve environmental objectives. Appendix 4 provides a list of sources for detailed guidance and advice for specific reclamation techniques. 6.3 Typical landforms available for reclamation in hard-rock quarries A range of readily recognisable landforms occurs in hard rock quarries. For the purposes of preparing and evaluating reclamation proposals, it is useful to refer to a standardised range of features and landform descriptions within a quarry. Box 6.3 provides a simplified typology of landforms available for reclamation in hard rock quarries. The suitability of these landforms and their constituent materials or substrates for landscape and ecological reclamation will depend on a range of site-specific conditions or factors. Where some of these are constraining factors, with targeted amelioration or restoration techniques it may be possible to achieve desirable ecological or landscape objectives. The final reclamation proposals should provide detailed quantified breakdown of the features present within the site, including soils and soil-forming materials available for reclamation, their current disposition across the site and how and where they will be used to achieve stated reclamation objectives. Box 6.3 Typical landforms of hard rock quarries Landforms Factors affecting suitability for reclamation Faces/cliffs Benches Rollover slopes Scree slopes/rockfalls Overburden mounds Lagoons / silt ponds Sump lagoons Site geology Site drainage/hydrology Stability of existing landform structures Ecological and landscape context/setting Existing habitats / vegetation of value Soil structure, type, fertility levels etc Other interests (e.g. geological conservation) Accessibility Long-term management requirements Costs Some examples of the relationships between landform types and the ground conditions are shown in Table 6.3 and stability considerations for various hard rock quarry features and landform design elements are presented in Table

46 Table 6.3: Some examples of ground conditions and what landforms might be achieved. GROUND CONDITIONS ACHIEVABLE LANDFORMS Zone of Argillaceous material Planted scree slope. Zone of faulted &/or heavily fractures rock mass Slope feature. Closely jointed rock mass Non-linear features i.e. incorporate bays with scree support or protrusions to support less desirable sections. Faces may require scaling and other stabilisation measures. Intact uniform strong rock mass Steep rock faces. Bedded units dipping at 20 to 70 into the quarry Slope cut back parallel to bedding surfaces. 6.4 Designing for Stability As noted in the section on operational characteristics of hard rock quarries, production blasting operations may leave a rock slope with potential instability hazards that are not acceptable for the proposed end use of the site. Hence, when developing quarry faces up to their final limit the blast design should aim to produce a face with as little blasting disturbance as possible. This may require consideration, during blast design, of the controlling geological features (e.g. major discontinuity sets) than would normally be required for production blasting. The use of specialist controlled blasting techniques, such as pre-split and smooth blasting, maybe employed to reduce blasting disturbance (see Section 3). The strategy for designing slopes is given in Figure 6.1. Figure 6.1. Stabilisation strategy consideration: 1. Evaluate Hazard YES Place data & design consideration in site data file. & 2. Proceed with design - Geotechnical survey [consider] - Data analysis - Identify failure mechanisms & scale - Identify potential exposure to hazard - Risk Assessment Is Hazard / Risk Acceptable NO - Can the hazard / risk be designed out - Can the hazard / risk be managed out - Select appropriate remedial option(s) - Geology - Groundwater - Discontinuities - Size / Extent - Effects of slope geometry - Effects on surrounding area - Exposure to hazard REMEDIAL OPTIONS - Removal - Strengthening - Containment - Avoidance 3. Select most appropriate option - Determine cost benefit - Determine effects on ecology & landscape - Analyse & consider residual risk of option - Consider effects on scheme - Visual impact - Stability influence on surrounding rock mass - Cost - Maintenance - Sustainability 4. Design & implement selected option 5. Establish ecology 6. Review maintenance management strategy HAND OVER FILE NOTE: Refer to Appendix 5 Table 2 for available options for consideration. 41

47 It should be appreciated that periodic inspection and assessment of the stability condition of all slopes should be carried out once any remedial works are completed (see Figure 6.1). Some of the slopes and landscape features in Table 6.1 require routine maintenance to remain effective and therefore remedial work may well be required both during and subsequently after restoration. Methods of improving the stability of potentially unstable rock slopes are given in Table 6.2. When selecting a remedial and maintenance work approach, the sustainability and whole service life cost of the slope should be considered in the light of the work required. To achieve cost effective remedial works, selecting the most appropriate approach or technique is more important than selecting the one with the lowest cost. For example, for the same cost, control / containment will generally treat a larger area than strengthening. However, if the rock slope(s) to be remediated have a small number of discreet failures that could be treated with rock bolts rather than build a large rock trap at the base and potentially sterilise part of the area that is to be built on, then this would make it a less cost effective strategy. 42

48 Table 6.1. Stability issues associated with typical hardrock quarry features. LANDFORM CREATION INSTABILITY CONCERN & CAUSE EXAMPLE Rollover slope Machine spreading, treatment with seed mix, nutrients, fertiliser. Cover over lifts & bench, may mask & therefore be affected by underlying instability. Water erosion & runoff. Soil slope failure prior to vegetation establishment. Cliff face & crest Production & restoration blasting. Near vertical face. Open distressed fracturing with potential for toppling, block fall & slide failures. Voids result from falls. Back-break fracturing behind crest leads to slab detachment & toppling. High cliff face often results from removal of benches on completion of production. Rollover slope at Darlton Quarry, Derbyshire. Bench Production blasting Back-break and sub drill fractures may lead to fall or slide at edges and through the bench. Wide benches used for tree planting. Vegetation may bind loose material and loosen blocks along discontinuities. Steep cliff face at Silverdale Quarry. Crest back-break, Tunstead Quarry Scree slope Blasting debris cones / piles & restoration blast creation. Bench planting at Dene Quarry, Derbyshire. Unsorted blast material includes large blocks. Displacement of loose blocks and material. Behaves as engineering soil liable to flow and slump instability. Back-break, Arcow Quarry. Multiple scree slopes, Whatley Quarry, Wiltshire 43

49 Table 6.1 cont. Stability issues associated with typical hardrock quarry features. LANDFORM CREATION INSTABILITY CONCERN & CAUSE EXAMPLE Quarry slope Production blast. Blast fractures resulting in a distressed face (stress induced & open by gas Cliff face, blast debris cones venting). Governed by geology: slide, topple & fall mechanisms possible & scree pile, sawtooth dependant on inherent geotechnical setting. profile. Loose perched blocks and slabs on face liable to fall. Back-break, may produce high level topple and fall. Blast pile loose blocks potential to block movements. Major discontinuities control designed face. Quarry tip Machine placement, engineering soil Rotational, sliding & flow failures. Denudation of un-vegetated surface by rain & wind form minor debris flows & ravines. Working quarry slope, Darlton Quarry, Derbyshire Turret column & Restoration blast Turret: fall of loose blocks, no basal support. Column: Topple of detached upright, instability is a consequence of inherent geotechnical setting. Major discontinuity sets control feature. Part vegetated tip, Skipton Rock Quarry Buttress Restoration blast, mid to full face height Create large features, small features unstable wrt blast damage influence zone. Therefore make >20m wide. Potential instability of the feature is a consequence of inherent geotechnical setting. Only effective design if favourable discontinuity orientation & low persistence / wide spacing. Failures include rock fall, toppling, rotational & translation. Turret at the crest, Dene Quarry Column, Dene Quarry, Derbyshire Small buttress, Tunstead Quarry. Large buttress, Tunstead Quarry. 44

50 Table 6.2. Stabilisation methods. TYPE STABILISATION MEASURE DESCRIPTION TECHNIQUES COMMENT Removal Scaling Removal of potential failures Manual rope access Hand tools, pneumatic breakers, jacks, airbags etc. Rock Reprofiling Creates a new more stable slope profile, or moves slope back to remove risks, removal of large specific potential failure masses. Machine face or crest Machine excavation Bulk Blasting Controlled Blasting Rock Trimming Tracked excavator (possibly long reach / demolition) Create stable slope profile Removal of large volumes of material Various Pre and Post Split Techniques Expanding grouts, Pyrotechnics, Line Drilling, Hydraulic Strengthening Soil Reprofiling Machine excavation / placement Create stable slope profile Restoration blasting Large scale landform creation Designed bulk & controlled blasting Large scale landform creation to modify slope geometry Drainage Stabilise slope by relief of groundwater Shallow surface water drains & ditches Counterfort drain, fin drain etc (Rock & Soil) pressure Deep interceptor drains Horizontal drains Drainage boreholes / wells Pumped installations Rock Reinforcement Installation of reinforcing elements into the PASSIVE: Dowel, Cable Dowel Untensioned rock or soil mass to increase the strength of ACTIVE: Anchor; Bolt; Cable-bolt Tensioned the mass Soil Reinforcement Soil Nailing Superficial materials Vegetation Roots bind materials Rock Support Rock Protection Provides retention or support to unstable areas Limits physical & chemical weathering, erosion and revelling Retaining wall Buttress Anchored waling & beams Dentition Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) Dentition Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) Netting Gravity-, crib-, gabion-wall, reinforced earth structure etc Concrete, masonry support, counterfort, toe-weight Horizontal support resisting load, concrete, reinforced etc Masonry, concrete, no-fines concrete- support overhang Shotcrete may be reinforced Protect vulnerable material Shotcrete may be pigmented, sculpted Maintain rock mass in place by restraining loose fragments proving interlock support to large blocks Control & Containment Soil Protection Rock traps Rock Fall Netting Contain rock failure material on or at the toe of a slope Controls the trajectory and energy gain of rock failures Avoidance Structure Move, keep away, exclude or reduce what is at risk from hazard NOTE: This list is offered as guidance only and is by no means intended to be comprehensive Spread seeded topsoil Scree slope management Manage surface water runoff Stand-off Ditch Bunds Fence / Barrier Draped Fixed Contoured Slope design standoff zone Dense or forbidding vegetation Relocation May require matting or biomatting Fill voids with appropriate material, geomatting Perimeter water interception / catch drains Exclusion zone at toe Collection Collection Aesthetic design i.e. wood, stone wall, vegetation etc Control trajectory Reinforced mesh, Anchored mesh tight confinement Fixed to slope Isolated benches etc Thorns, creepers etc 45

51 6.4.1 Landform replication using restoration blasting Due to the nature of hard rock sites, restoration may take many decades to occur by natural processes. The creation suitable landforms and habitats by restoration blasting has been investigated in research commissioned in the 1980s was undertaken to develop the concept of landform replication by restoration blasting. The investigation entailed the creation of a number of varied slope designs comprising rock screes, buttresses and headwalls (DETR, 1997). Further work was undertaken to evaluate the success of the trial and to make further recommendations as to how the technique might be successfully implemented more widely (ECUS, 2001; Brashaw, 2001; Cripps & Czerewko, 2002). Although the methods were trialed in limestone quarries, they could be applied in other hardrock quarries. The key findings suggested that the successful application of this technique depends on: Bespoke blast design for each replication attempt An appropriate combination of blasting styles including bulk, pre-split and post-split blasting with staggered holes Face and blast designs need to take account of the distribution of discontinuities in the rock mass to produce a staggered, natural and acceptably stable landform. The technique can not be used in an attempt to produce small-scale features, uch as butresses as they usually prove to be unstable (see Table Ey3b). Face and crest scaling are needed to trim the slope of any unstable rock following blasting. Following landform creation, further land forming such as the placing of fill and/or soils will usually be required for the establishment of appropriate vegetation. Long-term monitoring (5 25 years) of rock slope faces and of vegetation aftercare should be carried out. The implementation of the procedure is outlined in Figure 6.2 which defines an equally appropriate design sequence when formulating reclamation schemes in general. Further experience and application of the technique has proved encouraging as seen in Figures 6.3 and 6.4. Address opportunities & constraints Select appropriate landforms for the quarry reclamation scheme Restoration blast design Determine suitability of rock mass for selected landform creation, modify to achieve optimum design. Consider alternative methods for creating landforms. Detailed geological & geotechnical assessment of the existing quarry face Commence landform creation: Restoration blast. Amend restoration blast Identify target grassland communities, evaluate soilforming material and seeding method. Undertake any necessary remedial work. Design and implement most appropriate slope vegetation Design and implement most appropriate tree planting scheme Observational Approach - stability assessment Select tree species, design planting scheme & methodology Design & implement management scheme Figure 6.2. Outline of sequence for restoration blast design scheme implementation. 46

52 6.3. Tunstead Quarry, Derbyshire: Humphrey s early restoration blasting design circa Tunstead Quarry (Old Moor extension), Derbyshire: current reclamation by restoration blasting Design for Landscape The landscape elements in any quarry reclamation fall into two major categories - landform and vegetation. Together, these may generate a wide variety of landscapes. These elements are considered separately here for the purposes of explanation, but they are interlinked, and in any design they should be considered together along with other landscape elements such as boundaries and water bodies. Box 6.4 describes some of the main landscape design considerations in relation to landform and vegetation. Box 6.4 Landscape Design Principles LANDFORM Location and layout of landforms Scale of landforms Potential to break up horizontal lines Integrate top of quarry into surrounding landscape Landform for screening Retain profile of skyline VEGETATION Vegetation establishment Reflect landscape character Scale of areas and layout of vegetation Growing media (Soils and soil forming media) Requirements for long term management of vegetation COMMENT Consider in the context of the whole quarry and particular quarry faces/features. Scale should relate to the retained faces and to the quarry as a whole in its landscape setting. Marked horizontal features eg. bench lines and the top of rock faces may be inappropriate in the wider landscape. The quarry top or edge is usually especially noticeable and may require special measures to integrate with the surrounding landscape eg. use of rollover slopes. This is particularly important on the quarry lip. It could involve the manipulation of existing landforms or the creation of new landforms. These should both fit with the existing landscape character. This will help to limit the visual impact of the quarrying. Assess the requirement for rapid greening and screening or whether vegetation can be established over a longer time scale. Consider the visual impact of vegetation over time. Includes selection of appropriate vegetation types or species. Consider colour and pattern of vegetation in different seasons. This should be in relation to the faces, the quarry as a whole and the landforms created. The type, quantity and availability should be considered. This should include accessibility. Refer to Section 7 for more details. 47

53 6.5.1 Techniques for Achieving Desired Landscape Features Various techniques are available for achieving desired landforms, including the following: Use of landform simulation in appropriate locations. The relevant techniques are covered in more detail in DETR (1997); ECUS (2002) Tip material from above to create landforms, such as slopes, that look more natural and to encourage establishment of vegetation on the faces due to soil being retained on ledges. Scaling which involves tidying up the blast face by pulling off rock to achieve a stable face. This technique could also be used in reclamation to break up rock edges, faces and to create ledges. Restoration blasting is a non-production technique for reshaping quarry faces including those on the quarry margin. It can serve to soften the appearance of the upper margins of a quarry, create pockets in the faces and blast piles to facilitate vegetation establishment and achieve landform restoration (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4). Placing material on top edges of faces to reduce their continuity. Creation of slopes or mounds of material to create landforms on the quarry floor or to bury faces. Techniques for reducing the visual impact of quarries by the use of vegetation could include the following: Reduce the apparently abrupt and very prominent top of faces and the edges of the other landscape features such as water bodies. Reducing the prominence of rock faces by planting either on benches, ledges or crevices. The latter can be encouraged by tipping soil from above Screening of the quarry From the wider landscape during operations and in the long term. The fringes of the quarry can be particularly noticeable and vegetation may be used in combination with landform. Screening vegetation should fit with the landscape character of the setting and also link to the vegetation used within the quarry. It is important to consider the timing of planting so that screening is achieved at required time Rollover slopes If possible these should not be uniform but vary in height and gradient of slope. The slope should link to the landform within the adjacent landscape. Extending landscape elements from the surroundings, such as boundaries onto the slope, may help with integration. The type, colour and layout of the vegetation may also be important, especially for highly visible slopes. Figure 6. 5 Rollover slope at Darlton Quarry 48

54 6.5.3 Landscaping Quarry Landforms The examples shown in Figures 6.5 to 6.10 demonstrate how landscape design principles and techniques may be applied to the different landform types identified previously. Each landform type is considered individually, but there is a considerable overlap between them. The best reclamation schemes will include an integrated combination of the landform types and design principles and techniques. Rock faces Ideally the angle of the face should be reduced so that it leans back from the vertical. Varying the height of visible rock face by obscuring the top edge and introducing different height slopes at the base should be considered. Vegetation planted at the base can introduce variation in the amount of rock visible and can serve to soften the hard lines of the rock. Softening can also be achieved by establishing vegetation above the rock face and onto ledges and crevices on the face. The introduction of three-dimensional features such as buttresses and reductions to the linearity of the face will usually be beneficial. Figure 6.6 Rock face at Darlton Quarry Benches The continuity of horizontal lines should be reduced and the bench linked with slopes and vegetation to the more vertical cliff face above. Appropriate vegetation can be used to soften the rock face. Where possible slopes may be used to link two or more benches. Benches should be broad enough and accessible to allow management and aftercare operations. The visual effect of vegetation from a distance should be considered to avoid faces having a striped appearance, and reinforcing the horizontal lines of the benches. Figure 6.7 Benches at Dene Quarry 49

55 Quarry floor Variations in landform that reflect those on the surround area should be created. This area has the greatest potential for a variety of landscape designs. Figure 6.8 Contoured quarry floor at Kilnsey Quarry Slopes at Base of Rock Faces To make the slopes appear more naturalistic, the height of faces should be varied along their length to make the interface between the slope and rock face irregular. The slope gradient should also vary so that slopes are not smooth and regular. If possible, some of these should link to slopes that run across one of more bench. Vegetation has the potential to enhance the appearance of a slope but to appear naturalistic, the layout should be irregular with a variety of heights. Figure 6.9 Slopes at Llynclys Quarry Quarry tips The locations of tips should be considered at the outset of the project. If reprofiled, they can be made to fit in with the surrounding landforms. Tips may be sources of material that can be used elsewhere in the quarry to create new landforms. 50

56 Lagoons Contouring of the landforms should be carried out in so that any water bodies fit in with the adjacent landforms and has a naturalistic edge profile. Vegetation on the water body margins is of particular visual importance and the landform which will control water depth should be designed with this in mind. Figure 6.10 Lagoon at Lee and Greenmoor Quarry 6.6 Designing for Ecology What are Semi-Natural Habitats? Few habitats in Britain have remained unmodified by human activity. Habitats which are modified but which retain many characteristics of natural ecosystems are termed seminatural. The vegetation types they support are dominated by assemblages of locally native species and the natural ecological processes of colonisation, succession and species interactions play a significant part in habitat development. Such habitats tend to have developed over a relatively long period of time and support a wide variety of interdependent plants and animal groups of high conservation value. Typical, high value examples include ancient woodlands, unimproved species rich grasslands, moors, marshes, heathlands, fens, unmodified river channels and so on How Can Quarry Reclamation Contribute to Nature Conservation? During the 20 th century, loss of semi-natural habitats of high conservation value occurred on an unprecedented scale, largely due to changes in farming practice and widespread urban development. In the latter part of the 20 th century, the focus of research and nature conservation policy has aimed at restoring, enhancing and creating new habitats of high conservation value. Quarries reclamation can make a valuable contribution to this process. A large number of disused quarries have become colonized by natural processes and have developed into areas of high nature conservation value with respect to the habitats they contain. Many have been designated as SSSIs eg. Millers Dale Quarry, Derbyshire. Since the production of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) and a great many local BAPs, nature conservation policy and action has emphasised a range of well-defined targets to reverse the trend of decline in biodiversity. A number of these targets require action for particular habitats or species and existing and disused quarries are an important resource for conservation targets of this kind. BAP targets also include the restoration or re-creation of a range of valuable habitats. Again quarry reclamation proposals can make significant 51

57 contributions to meeting these targets, especially where they are located close to existing sites of nature conservation importance. To help meet these the, primary targets for ecological reclamation in quarries should be focused on the creation of new semi-natural habitats. Quarry reclamation provides an ideal opportunity for creating semi-natural habitats of high conservation value with a variety of complementary habitat types, structures and linkages capable of supporting a wide variety of plant and animal life. High botanical and invertebrate interests, for example, are particularly associated with species rich calcareous grassland in limestone quarries. Other features of value, such as ledges, cliffs, and caves can provide ideal nesting or roosting habitats for protected species such as ravens, peregrines and bats. Ponds and other open water in quarries may support amphibians, a variety of waterfowl, water vole, a rich variety of invertebrates and, with appropriate habitat linkages, larger mammals such as otter. Animal groups will often be reliant on more than one habitat. For example amphibians require aquatic habitat for breeding and terrestrial habitats such as grasslands and woodlands for foraging and hibernacula check. Reclamation design can contribute to these multiple habitat requirements of particular target species or species groups Ecological Design Principles Wherever possible, subject to other overriding reclamation objectives, natural colonization will generally be the considered the preferred and primary ecological reclamation technique. Observations made during this project confirm that fully developed natural colonisation provides habitats of extremely high ecological quality and nature conservation value. However, few quarries contain environments immediately conducive to rapid natural regeneration/colonization and the process may take many decades. Natural regeneration relies on the natural development of soils and on natural colonization by plant and animals groups from nearby sources. A long period of time may elapse before a stable, diverse community develops. Some quarries are located in areas where local sources for desirable natural colonisers are unavailable. Some quarries generate particularly harsh environments to natural revegetation, for instance the highly acidic and or free-draining wastes of slate quarries, or sites in upland locations. In such environments natural regeneration will require very long timescales. Nevertheless, for quarries situated in an area where natural colonization is likely to be viable (e,g adjacent to other areas of high quality habitats such as Sites of Special Scientific Interest) and there is no significant time constraint for achieving final restoration, natural colonization should usually be the favoured option. Where natural regeneration is not possible, it will be necessary to use a variety of habitat creation techniques. In all cases decisions concerning the selection of habitat targets and techniques for reclamation for ecology should be informed by a range of fundamental design principles, shown in Box 6.5. A consideration of these principles when designing reclamation proposals will increase the chances of successful reclamation to stated objectives or target habitats. 52

58 Box 6.5 Ecological Design Considerations Natural colonisation Existing habitats of value BAPs National Vegetation Classification (NVC) Locally native seed/ plant stock Ecological landscape context Vegetation/landform simulation Character of quarry faces, ledges and cracks Accessibility of worked out areas (faces and benches) Topography: Aspect Slope Natural colonization should be the favoured option for much ecological reclamation, unless there are other over-riding objectives or the reclamation environment will only allow natural colonization over unrealistic timescales. In particular, close to areas of existing high nature conservation interest (eg. SSSIs) natural colonization should usually be the favoured ecological option. All active and disused quarries will contains areas of existing surviving habitats or habitats which have developed during or since the operational life of the quarry. These may have a significant ecological value and wherever possible should be retained and enhanced by any new reclamation proposals. National and Local/County Biodiversity Action Plans provide an indication of natural and semi-natural habitats and species of local and national value which could be incorporated into a reclamation scheme. A range of BAP habitats and species that could benefit under quarry reclamation schemes are listed in Appendix 4 of the RSPB handbook on Habitat creation for the minerals industry (RSPB 2003). (See also worked example below.) The National Vegetation Classification (Rodwell, Vols.1-5, 1991 et seq) provides information on vegetation types, their geographic distribution, species composition and relative abundance in different parts of the UK. It also provides accounts of the ecological conditions under which they develop or persist. The NVC provides a primary source for the design and specification of a range of habitat types which might be achieved within quarry environments. An example of its application for a particular habitat is provided by Rodwell and Patterson (1994). Reclamation should be based on the use of locally native species and nearby semi-natural habitats. Seed and planting stock should be of native species and preferably of a local provenance. A useful code of practice for seed merchants and purchasers has been developed by Flora locale Studies of natural regeneration processes within the quarry and the character of habitats outside the quarry will provide information about factors influencing plant growth and establishment. In addition, nearby semi-natural habitats will help determine the potential of the site to provide complementary habitats, providing structures and linkages to the wider countryside and contribute to biodiversity in the surrounding area. Natural and semi-natural landforms and vegetation communities in the vicinity may provide models for simulation or re-creation. This principle underpinned trials for the replication of natural daleside landform and limestone grasslands, at Tunstead Quarry and elsewhere in the Peak District (ECUS 2002). Study of such areas can inform appropriate NVC community selection and the choice of reclamation techniques. Features within the existing, un-reclaimed quarry may have potential for the creation of bird roosts/nesting sites. Diverse habitat structure provides colonisation niches and opportunities for invertebrates and scarce nesting birds such as peregrine, ravens and choughs. It may not be practical to establish some habitats in some areas of the quarry. For example even with hydro-seeding it may not be feasible to vegetate some high benches or slopes. This may have implications for the operational phasing of quarry works, to allow on-going reclamation of such areas before they become inaccessible. Some areas of the quarry may be subject to high insolation (daily temperature variation) and desiccation amelioration of these factors may be required but where they affect only small areas they may also enhance ecological and habitat diversity. Some steep slopes will be inappropriate for creating some habitats e.g. wetlands. However, vegetation establishment and habitat diversity can 53

59 be improved by the creation of small-scale microtopography on inhospitable slopes (e.g creating areas of shallower hollows to create flushes or seepage zones) and may also reduce instability and erosion. Slopes will also be significant in determining appropriate techniques for seeding and vegetation establishment. Altitude Availability of soil or soil forming materials Soils: Structure Fertility Drainage and hydrology Landtake requirements Access ph Some habitat types may be inappropriate in areas of high altitude where high rainfall, short growing seasons and low temperatures can limit vegetation establishment and development. Specialist techniques are likely to be required in such locations. A soils strategy including an audit of soils and soil-forming materials in the quarry will be a pre-requisite for all reclamation proposals. Construction of a viable soil profile may require mixing or stratified placement of soils and underlying substrates to provide favourable conditions for vegetation establishment and survival. Soils and soil forming materials in hard rock quarries often provide a poorly structured medium for vegetation establishment and development, lacking water retention capacity and organic matter from which major plant nutrients are derived. Soil mixing and other amelioration techniques may be required to overcome these constraints. There is generally an inverse correlation between soil fertility and species diversity. Nutrient poor environments offer the potential for a range interesting terrestrial and aquatic habitats to develop. High value grasslands which have developed through natural colonisation of disused quarries, for example, will have developed on soils which are poor in nitrogen and particularly low in phosphorus content. However, some quarry environments are so inhospitable and infertile especially those on markedly acidic substrates that some amelioration is likely to be required. Substrates with exceptionally high (more than 8) or low ph (less than 3.5) can present severe difficulties for vegetation establishment and may require particular amelioration techniques. Soils are considered further in Section 6.5 of this guidance. Site drainage and hydrology will govern the feasibility of particular habitat or species targets, including open water, swamp, mire, wet grassland and wet heathland. Where quarries are worked below the water table a flooded void can result following closure. If unplanned this can result in steeply shelving benches with no transition zones and poor marginal habitat development. Where hydrological conditions permit, opportunities should be taken to create new wetland habitats consistent with the local ecological context. Further guidance is available elsewhere eg. RSPB (2003) Reclamation requires space. The integration of reclaimed areas into the surrounding landscape may have implications for landtake and the identification of areas on the margins of the site which will have to be retained for the creation of suitable landforms and habitats. Aftercare, long-term management and monitoring will require safe access to reclaimed areas. Tree planting on benches which are subsequently quarried to a narrow width may make aftercare impossible. Where grazing animals are likely to be introduced for management purposes it will be important to consider how they will be able to access areas of the quarry Habitat Targets for Quarry Reclamation The major habitat groups and some species interests likely to be appropriate for reclamation in hard rock quarries are identified in Box 4.5 in Section 4 of this guidance that deals with the aims and objectives of reclamation. Box 6.6 illustrates how these main habitats and related species groups might feature in the reclamation of hard rock quarries either through natural colonization or appropriate habitat creation on particular quarry landforms. A worked example in Box 6.7 illustrates how BAPs can assist habitat creation. 54

60 Box 6.6 Relationships between landforms, main habitats and species LANDFORM HABITAT/Species Groups Rollover slopes Benches Quarry tips Species rich grassland (acidic, calcareous, or mesotrophic; heathland, moorland, scrub, woodland communities; transitional communities Invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians and small mammals mainly associated with richer grassland and scrub habitats and woodland communities as they mature, associated birds Cliff faces Lichens, ferns (and bryophtes in moister areas), climbing plants Raptors, especially peregrine; ravens and choughs; bats Scree slopes at base of cliff Quarry floor above water table Lichens, ferns, bryophytes (particularly in moister areas) Invertebrates, small mammals Species rich calcareous/ mesotrophic/ acidic grassland; heathland, moorland, scrub, woodland communities; Transitional communities from marginal / openwater habitats eg fen, mire, wet grassland, marsh, swamp, carr etc. Invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians and small mammals mainly associated with richer grassland and scrub habitats and woodland communities as they mature, associated birds. Quarry floor below water table and Lagoons Shallower areas of water or impeded drainage will be suitable for creation of fen, reedbed, mire, bog, carr, marsh, swamp, wet grassland, rush pasture and marginal communities; Deeper water will usually entail the creation of ponds and larger areas of openwater Associated invertebrate, amphibian, reptiles, small mammal and bird species Invertebrates, fish and amphibians, Associated feeding, passage and breeding waterfowl 55

61 Box 6.7. Contributing to Biodiversity The worked example below illustrates how reference to local and national BAP s can help target habitat creation and actions that may be required to achieve particular objectives. Aim: To contribute to local BAP targets for creation/restoration of locally important habitats Objective 1: Objective 2: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Prescription: Create 25 ha of species-rich calcareous/limestone grassland. Prepare well-drained slopes with low-nutrient (to be specified) substrate Reduce compaction of soils as necessary by surface cultivation Apply thin layer (specify) of low-nutrient topsoil to areas with poor soil structure Allocate areas suitable for non-intervention and natural colonisation In other areas, sow specified seed mix of local provenance for limestone grassland vegetation Create 10ha of new locally native woodland habitat. Prepare slopes with low-nutrient (to be specified) substrate Modify drainage as appropriate for target woodland types (to be specified) Plant locally native trees and shrub mix (to be specified) for target woodland types, in specified manner (spacing etc.) 6.7 Soils Probably the most significant constraint to successful vegetation establishment and the achievement of desirable landscape and ecological reclamation objectives is the quality and character of the soils available at a site. In many cases, topsoils will be scarce or absent and mineral wastes or overburden are the only substrates available. At the outset, therefore, any reclamation scheme must be based on a clear and accurate assessment of the nature and quantity of soils and soil forming materials available for reclamation Primary Soil Characteristics The quantity and quality of plant growing medium is critical for successful vegetation establishment. The primary characteristics of importance for plant growth are: Structure the aggregation and size of soil particles and the amount oand distribution of pores and pore space affects drainage and aeration, root penetration and the water holding capacity of the soil Organic matter the organic fraction of the soil contributes to soil structure, nutrient supply and water holding capacity Soil fertility the availability of macronutrients, the essential elements required for plant growth, particularly phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium Soil biodiversity soil functionality depends on the activity of micro-organisms Soil moisture the water content, degree of waterlogging, drainage characteristics and seasonal variation in hydrological properties of the soils. A range of other factors influence the soil types present at a site, including underlying geology, rainfall and drainage characteristics, soil depth, and ph. Together with the levels of 56

62 macronutrients present, these will determine what type of end use is feasible and appropriate Box 6.8. Soil acidity (ph) is determined largely by underlying geology and varies markedly between habitats and vegetation types. Very low ph can make toxic metals more available whilst reducing the availability of plant macro-nutrients. Generally, a minimum ph of 3.5 is required for heathland and acidic grasslands whilst a ph not usually higher than 8 is required for calcareous communities such as limestone grasslands. Substrates with exceptionally high or low ph may require amelioration eg liming for low ph soils. Many soil characteristics are dependent of one another. Soil ph, for example may vary with drainage characteristics. Soil fertility the availability of plant nutrients and the toxicity of residual contaminants (such as heavy metals in some mineral spoil materials), vary with ph. Box illustrates the relationship of ph with drainage across a range of habitat types. Box 6.8 Relationship of ph and drainage across habitat types. (After White and Gilbert 2003) Increasing ph Acidic Neutral Alkaline Freely draining Native pine or birch woodland Dry heathland and scrub Acidic grassland Moorland Hay meadow and pasture Broadleaved woodlands Field Margins Calcareous grassland Broadleaved woodland Scrub Increasing wetness High water table/ impeded drainage Inundated Wet heathland Poor fen Bog Purple moor grass and rush pasture Marsh Openwater Bog pools Wet grassland Purple moor-grass and rush pasture Wet woodland Rich Fen Bog Marsh Marsh/ swamp Reedbed Open water Marsh Rich fen Open water The importance of soils and their treatment in quarry reclamation is emphasised later in this guidance, with further detail regarding these major factors, in paragraphs dealing with reclamation techniques and soil management strategies. 6.8 Ecological Reclamation Techniques Vegetation Establishment Vegetation a pre-requisite for the development of most terrestrial and wetland habitats. A range of techniques are available for establishing vegetation in the challenging sub-strates offered by hard rock quarrying. They fall under two broad categories of seeding and planting. A range of seeding and planting techniques are available for establishing vegetation and much guidance is available on their application in habitat creation (see Appendix 1 Existing Guidance). The main techniques are summarized below in Box

63 Box 6.9 Vegetation establishment techniques Seeding techniques Seeding by drilling Broadcast seeding Seeding by pouring Mulchseeding/hydroseeding Seed mats Spot seeding Turfing Seed rich litter/haystrewing Turfing Pot grown plug plants Tree establishment techniques Notch planting Tubed seedlings Direct seeding Pit planting Live wood cuttings Fascines and brush layering Forest litter Mature tree planting Pot grown climbing plants The relative merits of these techniques for application in particular circumstances should be carefully considered. In many cases seeding and planting techniques need to be adapted to particular quarry circumstances. It may be helpful to seek advice on the most appropriate methods for a particular site or reclamation scheme. It may also be beneficial to carry out field trials to determine which techniques are most effective in a given situation. Generally, the long operational life of quarries lends itself to such experimentation and valuable lessons can be learned before the costly implementation of full reclamation proposals as well as the further potential costs of repeat treatments following failure due to the application of inappropriate techniques. Detailed information on available techniques and habitat design are well documented, for example in RSPB 2003, Gilbert and Anderson (1999), Buckley et al. (1980) and others Experimental treatments Experimental reclamation trials can be of great value in determining appropriate techniques for successful establishment for different species and vegetation types. Trial studies can yield valuable information regarding soil development and growth rates which will in turn inform the design and programming necessary for greening and other environmental objectives. Such experimental plots can be assessed to provide blue-prints for reclamation elsewhere in the quarry. Trial areas may also provide useful sources of seed or other materials of use in final reclamation. Trials should be designed to investigate specific questions of importance in particular sites, as well as more general ecological factors influencing habitat establishment and development, such as soils, topography, climate, aspect and so on. Trials need to be carefully designed and monitored to ensure that clear, accurate data are obtained to assess the longer term effectiveness of experimental reclamation techniques which may be applied more widely in the quarry or at other sites. With appropriate design, the longer such trials are allowed to run, the better the quality of information they will yield and the greater value they will provide in guiding reclamation methods elsewhere. This will require experimental treatments to be built into the operational phasing of the quarry even if such areas are later sacrificed to mineral extraction or other reclamation. At Tunstead Quarry, near Buxton, Derbyshire, for example, restoration blasting trials were monitored for several years (ECUS, 2001). Some of the trial areas were later removed by mineral extraction but valuable information had been obtained during monitoring, with important lessons for application of the technique elsewhere Temporary landscapes During the operational life of a quarry, there is the potential to create temporary landscapes and associated habitats which can help reduce the landscape and visual impact of the operational quarry (eg. screening mounds) but which may not ultimately form part of the final profile of the quarry. Where such temporary landscapes develop as habitats over a reasonable time span, they can be of ecological value in their own right and may yield valuable insights into options for reclamation elsewhere in the quarry. They may also provide useful trial areas for experimental reclamation methods and potential sources for of transplant stock in establishing vegetation in new reclamation areas. Seed harvesting, for example, in 58

64 areas of established species-rich grassland within or close to the site can provide valuable restoration resources. Even where little time has elapsed for habitat development, such areas may quickly develop a narrower interest of importance. For example, sand martins will sometimes colonise mineral stockpiles; water vole, great crested newt and other amphibians may colonise water bodies (such as lagoons) on or adjacent to the site. Managing for these wildlife interests need not be onerous. Simply being aware of wildlife locations and adopting a flexible approach to site operations can enable sites to be managed whilst taking these interests into account. For example at Bolsover Quarry in Derbyshire, disturbance to the nests of sand martins in stock piles was avoided during the breeding season. Both retained habitats and naturally colonizing wildlife should be valued as an integral part of the final restoration and may form important reservoirs for species which can later colonize newly create habitats elsewhere in the quarry Incorporating existing interests All reclamation schemes should review any existing areas of conservation value within the quarry that may have developed through natural colonization or earlier reclamation works. Such areas should be incorporated into reclamation designs wherever possible. Where they cannot be incorporated, consideration should be given to translocation to other parts of the site as part of the reclamation works. Translocation can take a number of forms including: Turf removal Collection of seed Litter and brash transfer Transfer of upper soil layers (seed bank) The success of habitat translocation is dependent on many factors and where it has been undertaken hitherto the results have been highly variable. Habitat translocation for existing areas of value is a technique of last resort and should be attempted only where high value habitats cannot be retained in-situ. Nevertheless, translocation can be a valuable tool for salvaging areas of valuable habitat which would otherwise be destroyed by extraction operations. It also offers the opportunity to utilise existing habitat resources of secondary value to enhance the quality and success of the reclamation proposals overall. Such resources might include topsoil from stockpiles or retained areas of semi-natural vegetation within the quarry, or the use of wetland vegetation which has developed within the quarry. Detailed guidance on habitat translocation can be found in Anderson (2003). 6.9 Managing Soils The Need for a Soil Management Strategy Soil management is critical to ensure effective use of reclamation resources and the preparation and implementation of an effective soil management strategy is essential. This should cover all stages of the reclamation project, including the later stages of restoration and aftercare. An initial survey to identify soils and soil-forming materials (SFMs) on site should be undertaken and the information used to develop a soil handling strategy. Appropriate handling procedures must be adopted mishandling and inappropriate storage of soils and SFMs can cause compaction, smearing and a loss of soil structure. In projects that require soil amelioration, appropriate survey and handling procedures must also be applied. Record keeping, including the results of soil surveys and their use, will also be a vital part of the soil management strategy (Box 6.10). All soils and soil forming materials to be used in reclamation should be subject to suitable analysis to investigate their physical and chemical characteristics, to ensure appropriate matching and use for specified ecological and landscape reclamation objectives. 59

65 Box 6.10 Information requirements for a soil management strategy Soil survey distribution, quantity and depths of soils and potential SFMs on site physical characteristics including particle size distribution, density, stone content, water holding capacity, consistency, moisture content and degree of compaction chemical characteristics including ph, electrical conductivity, extractable P, K, Mg and calcium carbonate Soil handling procedures appropriate stripping and reinstatement methods soil movement soils and/or SFM storage height, location, long-term requirements etc soil handling machinery and on-site vehicles movements weather and soil and/or SFM conditions Soil amelioration selection of ameliorants and treatment rates based on soil survey/trial plots appropriate handling procedures Further information on soil management can be found in Land Use Consultants (1996), MAFF (2000), Bending et al. (1999). However, the focus of these publications and other soils guidance is generally agronomic and may require significant adaptation for ecological reclamation projects Soil Fertility Phosphorous (P) is the key nutrient in soils for habitat creation. Nitrogen (N), though a significant macro-nutrient is generally less limiting to plant growth since it can be readily supplemented without long term effects on vegetation development. In reclamation projects, soils must have an appropriate nutrient status for the target habitat being created. Agriculture and forestry require high quality soils that meet specific minimum standards, including high soil fertility (see Bending et al.1999) and are generally inappropriate for habitat creation schemes. Habitats of high conservation value occur on soils with low levels of nutrients. There are no set soil standards for reclamation to nature conservation and levels vary widely in seminatural habitats, but the nutrient levels in Table 6.3 can be used as preliminary guidelines. It is important to note that it will be difficult to establish habitats of high conservation value on soils with nutrient levels above these guidelines. For this reason, the use of topsoil in ecological reclamation is usually to be avoided, unless it derives from a known source with previous nature conservation interest and is shown to have a low nutrient status. Generally speaking, the lower horizons of a soil profile the subsoils tend to be lower in fertility and often provide a suitable habitat creation substrate. Table 6.3 Soil fertility guidelines for creating habitats of high conservation value Habitat P (mg/kg) K (mg/kg) Mg (mg/kg) N (mg/kg) Neutral grassland < 10,000 Acid grassland < 10,000 Calcareous < 10, grassland Heathland < 10,000 Woodland < 10,000 Wetland < 10, Soil profile and depth A natural soil profile develops through the combined influences of a number of factors, including climate, parent material, landform, biological factors and time. Soil profiles vary considerably, in structure depending on region and habitat. Different profiles are capable of supporting valuable conservation habitats, subject to other factors such as fertility being suitable, but it is clearly not possible to generalize to a preferred soil profile for reclamation use in all situations. The soil character and profile to be achieved at any particular site should be determined through assessment of the naturally occurring soil types in nearby habitats of value. In reclamation projects, soil depth should be sufficient to allow rooting by vegetation. By careful use of available resources, reclamation should aim to replicate a graded soil profile appropriate to the target habitat and local geology and natural or semi-natural soils. Repeated 60

66 above Many habitats of high conservation value occur on shallow soils cm deep or less and subject to particle size, moisture retention and nutrient status, this is likely to be sufficient in most quarry reclamations for ecology Soil-forming materials (SFMs) In new quarries or extensions to old ones, existing natural soils (both topsoil and subsoil) can be stripped and temporarily stored for use in restoration. However, the amount of soil from such sources is often limited. In most quarries, however, extraction generates mineral waste materials - sometimes in considerable amounts of varying size and character, from large blocky scree to fine mineral material often referred to as dust. In some quarries, large amounts of material is generated by overburden which is removed prior to extraction of the target mineral. These resources are highly infertile and often lack naturalistic properties of soils and soil profiles, with no organic fraction and poor water retention capacity. Nevertheless, in quarries where soil resources are limited these resources provide essential soil-forming materials (SFMs). SFMs are discussed in detail in Bending et al. (1999). Common examples of SFMs in hard rock quarries are described in Box Box 6.11 Potential soil-forming materials (From Wardell, unpublished) Material Characteristics Comments Overburden In-quarry waste rock, not processed (eg fault zones, clay wayboards, interbedded strata) Quarry production waste, scalpings Silts and washings Superficial deposits and weathered rock, usually good texture for SFM but often with high stone content. Fractured and often weathered rock with a matrix of sand, silt and/or clay Mixture of crushed stone and a matrix of sand, slit and/or clay Fine sands, silts and clays, usually deposited in a lagoon. Usually very good SFM potential Can be screened to remove stone or if clay rich it can be crushed to form SFM; usually has a high value as potential SFM Rock usually needs to be removed by screening, to leave the matrix as SFM Potential depends on clay content SFM potential depends on stone content and clay content. Process plant may be able to separate material with best potential. Can be blended with coarser, sandy materials to improve them. Silts can also be used as ameliorants. SFMs lack structure, organic matter, macronutrients and have no functioning biological components, and will therefore need amelioration before being used in for reclamation. For reclamation to nature conservation end-uses, low fertile substrates can be a positive advantage. Even for ecological purposes, however, some SFMs may require amelioration to achieve vegetation establishment in reasonable timescales. In many cases, however, natural colonisation of slopes formed from SFMs will still be the favoured ecological option Soil Ameliorants Introducing organic matter from an external source offers a means of stimulating soil development by improving physical structure, increasing nutrient supply and water holding capacity. Organic matter also provides a way of encouraging colonisation by soil microorganisms. A range of organic waste materials can be used as soil ameliorants, including sewage sludge, wood residues, animal manures, papermill sludge, composted greenwaste and others. The use of inorganic fertilisers in reclamation should be limited value since organic matter, if not introduced to a site, will build up only very slowly and the requirement for mineral fertiliser, which can be costly, does not diminish appreciably over an extended period. The precise effect of adding an organic ameliorant to a SFM will depend on the initial characteristics of the two materials. Based on these characteristics, experimental trial plots and growth trials should be carried out before proceeding with large-scale reclamation works. 61

67 Trials can be combined with assessment of other appropriate treatments and cultivation techniques for reclamation at the site. For example, nurse or companion species can be used to boost the fertility of poor soils. Nitrogen fixing plants, such as alder, or legumes such as gorse, clovers and bird s foot trefoil can be useful for capturing N in infertile soils. Trials might include assessment of the value of such techniques at individual quarry sites. Where such species are used, they should be native and of local provenance Site Zoning and Phasing On most sites except those given over solely to natural colonisation a range of objectives will be included in reclamation. Some objectives will be location specific such as rapid greening for visual amelioration in some highly visible parts of the quarry; or wetland habitats targeted on the quarry floor where hydrological conditions are suitable. In other parts of the quarry, reclamation objectives may include several options that are less sensitive to location. In some cases, multiple site use and associated objectives may be in potential conflict. In all these circumstances it will be necessary to establish a clear zoning of uses, objectives or reclamation targets across the site. Similarly, for new and existing (operational) quarries, operational requirements such as the siting of processing plant will affect the locations and extent of reclamation targets, and will require zoning of parts of the site. The detailed restoration requirements for particular reclamation objectives may also have implications for site zoning. For example, where part of the site requires backfilling or regrading, these operations must take place before final treatments can be implemented. The removal of overburden or mineral storage mounds may also determine where and when particular reclamation objectives can be implemented. Requirements imposed by site tenure, legal obligations or access arrangements may also constrain the location and sequencing of reclamation objectives. To meet these logistic considerations for planning reclamation, final, detailed proposals should include an account of any site zoning or phasing requirements for reclamation. Where possible, these should be incorporated into appropriate site plans/drawings. It is particularly important to give early consideration to reclamation treatments at the margins of the site, to ensure that sufficient space is available for appropriate reclamation techniques, such as restoration blasting or the creation of roll-over slopes. It must be accepted, however, that in many existing quarries with old permissions, little scope for such treatments may exist without an extension of existing permissions to allow reclamation works at the margins of the site. Wherever possible, the phasing of reclamation works should result in final landforms and habitats without secondary disturbance and the need for further subsequent reclamation. Early planning of reclamation options and proposals for phasing will minimise the costs of reclamation, reduce the requirements for temporary reclamation and result in a more mature reclaimed landscape at an earlier stage following site closure Drawings Masterplanning The development of a Reclamation Masterplan for the site is a critical element of the final reclamation proposals. This will identify site end uses, landforms and habitats for reclamation and, as far as possible, the final landform should be specified. It is also important that any proposals for special measures, such as particular habitat features of importance, species conservation measures or measures for stability and safety are highlighted. The Masterplan should also indicate any significant site zoning or expected phasing of reclamation works. It may be necessary to prepare additional plans to depict some of this detail. 62

68 Box 6.11 Requirements for a Reclamation Masterplan Minimum Masterplan Requirements The following may require separate plans: Soil-forming materials to be used/top soiling areas Existing habitats/features to be retained Disposition of fill/waste/soils across site existing and Other features of interest to be retained e.g. geological proposed or archaeology Phasing (may require sequence of plans) New of modified landforms Management proposals New habitats New features (eg raptor nesting ledges) New landscape features (eg field pattern) Other Drawings Most active quarry sites have topographic survey information. Together with habitat survey information, landscape assessments, assessment of geological, archaeological, industrial or other interests, these should make it possible to prepare a mapped plan (or series of plans) to describe the site's current character and environmental interests on or near the site. This will provide essential context for the interpretation and evaluation of the Masterplan and associated reclamation proposals Plan Review and Monitoring Specifications for monitoring and procedures for assessment of implementation against the stated aims of the reclamation scheme also needs to be included in the final plan. This gives rise to a need for monitoring and data collection during implementation and for opportunities to review progress and make any necessary amendments to the design or technical procedures for reclamation. This process of plan monitoring and review needs to be carried out in consultation with the Mineral Planning Authority. In view of the long-term nature of most hard-rock quarrying operations, it is likely that personnel will change within both the quarry company and the planning authority. It is necessary, therefore, to maintain a concise background description of the scheme, together with scheme drawings and appropriate updates. The reasons for making decisions and any related conditions attached to the plans should be recorded. One of the objectives of monitoring is to determine whether the site conditions anticipated during the formulation of the scheme and the selected reclamation techniques continue to apply as site operation and reclamation progresses. Some factors affecting the design may not be known accurately at the outset. For instance, the quantity of overburden actually present may differ from the expected amount. Changes in mineral extraction method, processing technology and external economic factors may affect the supply or properties of waste materials for use in the reclamation work. Consequently, there is also a need to monitor the amounts and types of all the materials produced or acquired during site operation that may be used in the reclamation scheme. Monitoring of the success of the establishment of vegetation should inform on-going reclamation work, and may require changes to planting and establishment methods, as well as to the species being employed. Due regard should be paid to the appearance of the vegetation at different times of year. The success of the reclamation scheme in meeting the stated landscape and ecological objectives should also be assessed and, where necessary, modifications should be made to the design and techniques used in reclamation. Sometimes, where a greater overall environmental benefit could be achieved, this may also require small extensions to the permission for extraction to be granted by Mineral Planning Authorities. Where schemes include bare rock or faces, attention should be given to the stability of these features. Walton et al (1993) provide advice on the recording of information that would aid the assessment of the stability condition of rock and soil slopes in quarries. Such information will usually be collected to comply with the requirements of the Mines and Quarries Act 63

69 (1999). The stability implications of rapid degradation of rock units or fractured zones within the rock mass should be assessed. However, the assessment of instability should also take into account the projected timing for completion of reclamation and the compatibility of the instability with the proposed land use. Where faces are less stable than is desirable, the extraction methods and stabilisation measures should be reviewed. It is envisaged that all these data will be considered when the 15 year review of the reclamation scheme is carried out, but in order to ensure that the ultimate aims of the scheme are likely to be achieved it is suggested that the working of the operations should be reviewed annually, with a major review every 5 years. Monitoring needs to continue through the aftercare period, with provisions made for resources for any remedial work. 64

70 7. AFTERCARE AND LONG TERM MANAGEMENT The terms aftercare and long term management, as defined in Box 7.1, refer to distinct requirements associated with the establishment and subsequent management of new habitats on reclaimed land. There is often also some confusion over the use of the terms 'restoration and 'aftercare'. This document follows schedule 5 of the Towns and Country Planning Act 1990, in using the term 'reclamation' to incorporate both restoration and aftercare. However, general usage is followed in regarding 'restoration as including all measures required to restore the landscape - including seeding and planting - unlike the schedule 5 definitions in which restoration conditions refer only to the placement of soils, subsoils and soil forming materials. For the purposes of this guidance, therefore, 'aftercare includes all additional measures required to establish the stated after-use of reclamation, once the landform has been created, seeded and planted. Box 7.1 Definitions for Reclamation and Long-term Management Restoration Operations associated with mineral extraction that are intended to return the area to an acceptable environmental condition and to a condition suitable for intended after use, including seeding and planting. Importantly 'reclamation' includes both restoration and aftercare events which take place before and during mineral extraction. Aftercare Steps taken to bring land up to a required standard for intended after uses, including short-term maintenance to ensure adequate establishment eg. planting, fertilizing, watering etc. Long term management Extended or permanent arrangements designed to perpetuate a particular after use and land management type eg. grassland maintenance by grazing or mowing; coppice management of woodlands. 7.1 Aftercare The main aims of aftercare are to bring the land to a state where it can be treated in the same way as undisturbed land in the same use. Objectives for aftercare depend on the end use of the land, climatic conditions, funds available etc. MPG7 requires a maximum 5-year aftercare period for all mineral sites or such other maximum period as may be prescribed/negotiated under other arrangements such as Section 106 Agreements. Aftercare periods tend to be phased in accordance with mineral operations and so will be progressive, following on from the initial phases of reclamation usually implemented within the operational lifetime of the quarry. Since operational and reclamation phases are generally linked, the first of the aftercare periods may often continue to run until completion of the final phases, effectively significantly lengthening the aftercare period of earlier stages. Nevertheless, a detailed set of proposals is also required to provide for longer term management of the reclaimed landscape. A management plan should be drawn up which incorporates all restoration and aftercare requirements and provides assured continuity and flexibility, enabling the long term objectives of a reclamation strategy to be met, subject to agreement and regular review with landowner, MPA and operator. Further information on producing an outline strategy and the main items to be covered is provided in MPG 7. Regular review can update the management plan to reflect site conditions and ensure that aftercare and management accords with best available current practice Aftercare for Nature Conservation and Landscape Amenity Whilst a 5 year aftercare period may be effective for some after-uses such as agriculture, restoration for habitats of high conservation value and at least some landscape objectives are likely to require a longer period of aftercare, particularly where reclamation is undertaken on a trial basis. For these purposes, a detailed aftercare plan is of particular importance for the coordination of this process for nature conservation and landscape after uses. In practical terms, aftercare for nature conservation and landscape after-uses falls into 2 stages;- 65

71 Immediate management operations to ensure successful initial establishment usually 1-2 year period, following the introduction of plant material (seeding/planting) together with related operations eg fertilizer application. Further management to ensure survival and development towards final landscape and habitats. Short term aftercare in relation to nature conservation end uses may include the activities shown in Box 7.2 Box 7.2 Aftercare Requirements Irrigation and watering Newly planted trees and developing grassland may need to be watered particularly during prolonged dry spells. (Landscape Institute, 1996, - ECUS 2002). Control of wild animals/ Newly created habitats will need to be protected from grazing, erosion and livestock damage. Quarries adjoining pasture will need to be securely fenced to prevent grazers entering the site. Equally, rabbit fencing may be required. Ideally fencing should be erected before any seeding /planting is undertaken. Trials at Tunstead in Derbyshire found that rabbit populations were a major factor in determining the success of vegetation establishment. Trees may also need to be protected from grazing damage by use of tree guards.etc. Replacements Replacement of any dead/ dying trees, checking of tree guards. (Landscape Institute, 1996) Control of invasive species Fertilizers Existing areas of conservation value Access 7.2 Longer Term Management Invasive plants both in terrestrial and aquatic habitats may need to be controlled eg ragwort. Weeding around tree root establishment zone etc. Where nature conservation is the desired afteruse additional applications of fertilizers are unlikely to be required. Trial plots should be used to determine the need for any future applications. Additional nutrient inputs are unlikely to be required if native legumes have been included in the initial mix. Areas which have been previously identified for retention within the design proposals may need additional measures to ensure their survival. For example, protective measures to be adopted to prevent damage to all existing earth science features and habitats and species of importance It is essential that safe access to the restoration areas be maintained. Provision of infrastructure usually falls outside the scope of restoration and aftercare. However, proposals should seek to ensure that any infrastructure that facilitates restoration and aftercare also contributes to after-use. Unless a conscious decision has been taken not to manage the vegetation of the site (ie to allow natural succession to determine the ultimate complement of habitats) nearly all sites will require management to maintain and enhance their conservation value. In all cases, proposals should be prepared at the outset, in the form of a site management plan, describing the management objectives and techniques which are expected to take place to maintain the reclaimed landscape into the future. Further management may include consideration of any of the maintenance measures described above, together with additional management needs for particular developing habitat types. For example, mowing or grazing of newly established flower-rich grassland may be required to maintain species diversity. Developing scrub may need to be coppiced or cut to provide a diverse habitat structure. Where it is likely that livestock will be required for the continued management of a site it will be important to consider at an early stage where they will be sourced from and whether their presence on the site is practical. Further advice on specific management requirements and habitat management plans for different habitats and associated animal groups can be found in Backshall et al. (1998), Countryside Commission (1996), Crofts and Jefferson (1999), Gimingham (1992), Nature Conservancy Council (1988), Peterken (1993), White and Gilbert (2003), RSPB et al (1997), Nature Conservation Considerations for Long-Term Management Successful reclamation for nature conservation requires a long-term commitment to site management. Involving local voluntary conservation groups such as the RSPB or Wildlife Trusts at early stage in the reclamation process may be valuable. Given sufficient resources, 66

72 these organizations may be in a position to take on the management of a site once the operator has withdrawn. They may be able to assist with practical management activities and help with long term management through advice and implementation. Such organizations are also well placed to attract alternative funding for management in sites with high nature conservation values. They may also provide potentially beneficial links with local communities. Other sources of advice and expertise are listed in Appendix 4 of this guidance Landscape considerations for long term management Specific landscape considerations when drawing up a plan for long term management include the following: Layout of vegetation - Tree groups and woodland edge profiles can be manipulated by the management of the vegetation to enhance landscape diversity Proportion of vegetation to open space - Proportions can be maintained or altered by the thinning or felling trees and shrubs. Effectiveness of screening vegetation - Can be assured by good establishment and effective management of vegetation. Maintain views - These include desirable views into and out of the site and over both long and short distances. Encourage diversity of vegetation Diversity of vegetation cover will provide enhanced visual landscape interest. Perception of personal security - Although perception of personal security is subjective, the type, height and density of vegetation can be managed to improve the perceived safety for access to a site. 7.3 Monitoring It is important to monitor and record the success of reclamation schemes. Besides providing information useful to the reclamation project in hand, monitoring should aim to increase knowledge and awareness within the industry of good practice for reclamation, Relevant legislation requires reclamation to bring land to a required standard for the specified use. Specifications for such required standards should be part of the reclamation planning process. Monitoring will be an essential tool for assessing reclamation success. It is an essential part of the long-term management programme of a site and will inform the need for any changes in management practice and target any specific issues arising from the monitoring process. The procedures for monitoring and the data to be recorded should be fully specified as it is likely that different personnel will carry our successive surveys or phases of reclamation Ecological Monitoring Effective ecological monitoring is crucial to allow successes and failures of the reclamation process to be identified and techniques improved. For example, monitoring of soil, vegetation development and site colonization by animals will be necessary to assess the site against stated reclamation objectives. Monitoring will also assist in identifying areas which may need management or subsequent amelioration or aftercare treatments. For example, areas of developing vegetation may require grazing but monitoring will be required to determine at what point grazing animals can safely be introduced to newly created grassland habitats. Any monitoring programme should consider the items in Box

73 Box 7.3 Proposed monitoring programme for hard rock quarries Monitoring objectives Monitoring must be directed to the objectives for reclamation. Reclamation to species rich limestone grassland may require permanent quadrat recording of the developing vegetation. However, it must also target relevant species groups or features which can be used to evaluate change and development against the objectives for reclamation. Monitoring methods Clear monitoring methods should be developed and defined at the outset and adhered to throughout the monitoring programme. Methods should be selected/designed to provide clear indications of change or trends in the monitored habitats or species. In some cases, simple, cost-effective monitoring may be as straightforward as photographic monitoring of vegetation development. Data analysis and evaluation Analytical requirements for monitoring data should be clear at the outset of monitoring. Analysis requirements may determine the design of the monitoring programme and methods. Baseline data It is essential to undertake baseline monitoring on completion of reclamation measures in particular locations in the quarry. A newly profiled and seeded slope would require monitoring at the time of seeding (if only to record that the area is bare of vegetation) and again in the first season of growth and in subsequent years at the same time of year. Frequency and timing It is important to maintain a regular systematic approach to monitoring. Clear programming will be required to ensure that appropriate monitoring periods and intervals are adopted eg. annual summer transect surveys for butterflies. Some monitoring intervals may change, however, requiring more frequent monitoring in the early stages of habitat development when change is likely to be more rapid Duration of monitoring Monitoring may be for the term of a specified aftercare period or for a longer period where the objective is to monitor long-term habitat development and the influence of management. Access Monitoring will require safe access to reclamation areas. More information on monitoring and evaluation is provided in Ecological census techniques :A Handbook (Sutherland, 1996). The design and monitoring of experimental reclamation techniques and procedures should be published regardless of whether they are successful to inform others attempting similar work. Published results (ECUS, 2002) from monitoring of restoration blasting/landform simulation at undertaken at Tunstead and Hope quarries in Derbyshire reported mixed findings in relation to the simulation of specific landforms and vegetation communities. Such studies will inform practice and advance the development of new techniques for effective reclamation in hard rock quarries and elsewhere Landscape Monitoring The purpose of landscape monitoring is to compare the original landscape targets with the outcomes of the reclamation. It is important to note that reclamation is an ongoing process and may not be completed at a specific point in time. The process of reclamation will continue beyond the creation of landforms and planting of vegetation, driven by long-term management, usually until the site is self sustaining. Reclamation outcomes could be recorded at specified intervals, commencing when the first part of a reclamation scheme has been implemented and continuing until the landscape has reached a degree of maturity. In areas reclaimed early in the lifetime of a quarry, this may be whilst the quarry is still operational. Records should be kept of individual faces and slopes, as well as for the quarry as a whole. Monitoring should include a comprehensive photographic record as well as written notes. These notes should be recorded on a pro-forma survey form to ensure consistency in recording throughout the monitoring programme. The detail of the monitoring will depend on the original reclamation aims and objectives for landscape but might address the following questions: Does the reclamation meet the objectives in terms of the wider landscape setting? Does the reclamation meet the objectives in terms of individual landscape features (quarry faces etc.)? Does the restored feature or quarry site look natural? How well does the restored face reflect model landforms? How could the reclamation scheme be improved? 68

74 Stability monitoring RECLAMATION PLANNING IN HARD ROCK QUARRIES: The stability of hard rock excavations is strongly controlled by the structural features such as joints and other discontinuities they contain. The character, frequency and geometrical relationship of these to each other and to the slope face, as well as the groundwater conditions, all influence stability. The relevant concepts are explained in numerous publications, including Hoek & Bray (1981), Bell (ed.,1994), Matheson (1983) Simons et al. (2001). The various discontinuities present in a rock mass provide the weakness surfaces along which failure may occur. Instability may be predicted by analysing the geometry and character of these discontinuities. The height of the slope or face is also important. The properties to be recorded are outlined in BS5930:1999, ISRM (Brown, 1981) and other standards. Typically sliding, toppling, fall, ravelling and rotational mechanisms (Varnes, 1978), are the most common types seen in hard rock masses, see Appendix 5, Table 2. Rotational failures are typical in soil type materials (e.g. superficial materials, and quarry wastes) but may also occur in hard rock masses which contain with weaker soft rock bands, lenses and/or in-filled discontinuities or in highly fractured and disturbed rock masses. Fracturing and dilation of natural discontinuities by blasting (e.g. production or restoration) may leave a rock mass that is prone to rotational failures. Flow failures are more typically of disaggregated materials such as quarry wastes such as might be deposited in lagoons. Walton et. al. (1993) provide guidance about the surveying of quarry excavations, as well as the interpretation of the data in terms of the recognition of potential instability in quarries. Careful description and classification of the rock mass, including consideration both of the material and discontinuities, will provide an insight to the prevailing weathering processes and likely failure mechanisms, and provide an indication of appropriate corrective measures for stability mitigation. In the case of highly fractured rocks and disaggregated materials, stability depends primarily upon the strength of the material itself and the groundwater conditions. As with rock slopes, appropriate analytical methods enable prediction of the likely stability condition of slopes. Great care needs to be taken to design structures whose function it is to retain water and slurry materials as the failure of such structures is liable to pose serious threats to an areas well beyond the immediate vicinity of the structure. 7.4 Record Keeping It is essential to keep monitoring records in a central location where they can easily be accessed. In addition to monitoring records it is essential to keep detailed records on the reclamation process. It is advisable for recorded to be kept centrally, within a company archive, and also by the site personnel and the MPA. Typical record information may include;- Landforming details on techniques used to create landforms ie Details about machinery and blasting techniques used. Depths and nature of fills etc. Soil - details of soil (and SFMs) quantities, fertility, proportions eg 50% stemmings:50% clay fines, depth of soil placement/profiles, details on amelioration treatments used, quantities of fertilizers used eg Kg/ha, etc. Survey and monitoring data including initial site investigations, baseline surveys and subsequent monitoring programmes. Seed and plant establishment - details of seed sources/ planting stock and techniques used for establishment e.g. hydroseeding. Quantities of seed used eg sowing rates and proportion of seed mix used (e.g 5% ox-eye daisy, 5% bird s foot trefoil). Types of machinery used in establishment process. Details on trial treatment areas. Aftercare treatments details of any additional treatments applied eg number and frequency of watering events, additional fertiliser applications etc. Details of longer term management 69

75 activities undertaken should also be recorded. For example, records of grazing management should include stock type, numbers, periods of grazing etc. All of the above should be catalogued with details on the dates and year in which they were undertaken. It is also critical that different treatment areas are clearly marked on the ground so that they can be readily identified (particularly for the purposes of monitoring). Photographic records can also provide a valuable record of the reclamation process and ideally should be taken at every stage, including landforming, seeding and monitoring. 7.5 Implementation of site management and aftercare maintenance Management and aftercare forms part of the post-implementation stage of a hard rock reclamation scheme. Aftercare consideration is a requisite for all restored mineral sites and a minimum period of 5 years is required. Unfortunately this is considered too short a period for hard rock sites where end uses consist of soft landform and ecology implementation. For appropriate ongoing long-term management, records of all the appropriate and pertinent site information are required within the Site Handover File. Prospective site owners, such as farmers, developers, local authorities etc, need to be fully aware of the land ownership, assets (e.g. ecological, landform, archaeological and geological conservation) and any liabilities associated with the site, such as: Safety & stability of rock face excavation, tips, lagoons, stockpiles and any other remaining structures. Pollution (Environmental Protection Act, 1995) Under the Quarry Regulations (1999), Appraisals and Geotechnical Assessments of excavations and tips should identify any potential hazards and implement appropriate risk management and reduction strategies. MPG7 requires that on closure of a quarry, the site is left in a stable condition appropriate to the planned after-use of the site. Once a site has been reclaimed and developed to its intended after-use the period of after care will include monitoring any changes to the landform features that may affect its stability. Following the after-care period and the final handover of the site it is good practice to further maintain a regime of monitoring of stability. Recommendations to the level of inspection required and how often these should be undertaken should be provided by the geotechnical specialist as part of the stability and remediation recommendations. Visual observations conducted during site visits should be collated and where necessary stability survey undertaken by suitably qualified personnel. If there is a change in the intended after-use of the site or any interim deterioration of the site then the risk requires to be re-assessed, taking into account any changes. The site records including reclamation design records and in particular the final quarry regulation assessment should be available to provide a basis for such assessments. The handover file therefore serves as a database of information required for: Land ownership establishment Operation and usage of the site o Management of Health & Safety o Maintenance & Remedial Works Management and/or development of the site Long-term after-care Information in the handover file should include the details shown in Box 7.4, which includes items recommended by CDM regulations. 70

76 Box 7.4 Information to be included in the hand-over file: Notes of meetings, Copy of planning permissions, correspondence, Annual quarry & restoration & management reports, Land ownership & boundary plans Plans of final rock head profile (including below ground structures such as tanks & sumps) Location plans for groundwater including pollution monitoring boreholes, springs, streams etc. As built drawings, photographs, records, specifications for any reclamation or landscaping work. Geological records, cross sections, records of penetrative investigations, geotechnical slope stability surveys, photographic records, design consideration Quarry Regulations Appraisal & Geotechnical Assessments identifying hazards present. Records of tips & tipped material Records of ecological, landscape, geological and archaeological conservation sites. Design records for any remaining structures including tips, lagoons etc Information listed in MPG5, Appendix B Monitoring records Aftercare records Management records. Site inspections, incident records, and design implementation records, planting, cropping, soil & fertiliser records, H&S records risk design, etc- transfer onto digital database & hardcopy to be held by site owner & transferred w change of hand, copy to be lodged centrally Summary briefing notes for key personnel Plan monitoring and review - review period; mechanisms to vary proposals. 71

77 APPENDIX 1. (List of Quarries) 72

78 Appendix 1. List of Quarries Studied in the Course of the Project Quarry Operator Location Rock Landscape Ecology Engineering Geoplogy Arcow Tarmac North Yorks, Dales Ingleton Silurian Greywacke Ballidon Tarmac formally Tilcon Peak District (Ashbourne, Limestone DE6 1GU) Batts Combe Hanson South West Cheddar Carb LST Bolsover Tarmac Derbyshire Mg Lst Chipping Sodbury Hanson S. Gloucest Carb LST Clee Hill Hanson Shropshire Dolerite under Prod Coal Meas Darlton Tarmac Peak District Carb LST Dene Tarmac Peak District - Cromford Carb LST Drybrook Hanson South West Glouc Carb LST Frosterley & Roundhill Harehope Quarry Project (Carp lake) (Ex Tilcon) Weardale Carb LST Howick Tarmac Northumberland Whin stone, dolerite Kilnsey Agg Ind/Private N. Yorks Carb Lst Kinder Bank Wood Public Peak District, Hayfield Gritstone Ladybower/Win Hill Severn Trent Water Peak District Gritstone Lee Lancashire County Council Lancashire, Rossendale NGR SD Sandstone Little Mill Tarmac Northumberland Whin stone, dolerite Llynclys Lafarge Shropshire Oswestry Carb Lst Mancetter Tarmac Warwickshire MDST Middlepeak Tarmac Derbyshire, Wirksworth Carb LST Millers Dale Derbyshire Widlife Trust Peak District Carb Lst Ribblesdale Castle Cement Clitheroe, Lancs Carb LST Silverdale Hanson Carnforth Lancs Carb LST Skipton Rock Tarmac-Northern North Yorks BD23 6AB Carb LST Trowbarrow Public Lancs Carb LST Whatley Hanson Somerset, Frome Carb LST Whin Hill Severn Trent Water Peak District, Bamford Gritstone 73

79 APPENDIX 2. (List of References and Bibliography) 74

80 Appendix 2. List of References and Bibliography Anderson P (2003) Habitat translocation a best practice guide. CIRIA, London. Andrews J & Rebane M (1994) Farming and wildlife: a practical handbook for the management, restoration and creation of wildlife habitats on farmland. The RSPB, Sandy. Aspinwall Company Ltd (2001) Effectiveness of provisions for the aftercare of minerals workings. ODPM. HMSO, London. Backshall J, Manley J and Rebane M (eds) The Upland Management Handbook Bacon, J, Barnes N, Coleshaw T, Robinson T and Tither J (2001). Practical Solutions Handbook Equipment, Techniques and Ideas for Wildlife Management. English Nature, Peterborough. Bailey D.E. (1994). Habitat reconstruction as a technique for the reclamation of limestone quarry faces. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Manchester Metropolitan University. Baines C & Smart J (1991) A guide to habitat creation. London Ecology Unit, London. Bate R, Bate J, Bradley C, Peel H and Wilkinson J. (1998). The potential conribution of the mineral extraction industries to the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. English Nature Research Report No.279 Bell F. G. (ed) Engineering in rock masses. Butterworth Heinemann, p580. Bending N.A.D, McRae S.G. & Moffat A.J. (1999) Soil-forming materials: their use in land reclamation. DETR. HMSO, London. Brashaw, P Limestone landform simulation in quarry restoration, part 1. Mineral Planning. 89, Brooks A. (1987). Woodland: a practical conservation hanbook. British Trust for ConservationVolunteeers. Brown E. T Rock characterisation, testing and monitoring, Pergamon, Oxford. Brunsden D (2002). Geological roulette for engineers and planners: some insights into an old game. 5th Glossop lecture. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 35, BS 5930 (1999) Code of practice for site investigations. British Standards Institution, London. Buckley G P, (Ed) (1989) Biological Habitat Reconstruction. Belhaven Press. London and New York Butler A. J., Harber A. J., Nettleton I. M. & Terente V. A. (2002). Rock slope risk management and the quarries regulations (In: Scott P. W & Bristow C. M. (eds) Industrial Minerals and Extractive Industry Geology. Geological Society London, ). Byron H (2000). Biodiversity Impact Assessment: A Good Practice Guide for Road Schemes. RSPB, WWF-UK, English Nature and the Wildlife Trusts, Sandy Campbell C & Puri G (2002) Soil biodiversity. Information and Advisory Note No 151, February Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh. Committee for Plant Supply and Establishment (1995). Handling and Establishing Landscape Plants. (Available in Appendix 1 of Horticultural Trades Association (1997)). 75

81 Confederation of British Industry UK 1991 Archaological Investigations code of practice for Mineral Operators Coppin N J and Bradshaw A D (1982). Qusrry reclamation: establishment of vegetation in quarries and open pit non-metal mines. Mining Journal Books. London Countryside Agency Assessment Guidance for England and Scotland., Cheltenham. Countryside Agency Commision Management Plans. CCP206 Cheltenham. Cripps, J.C. & Czerewko, M.A Development of methods for identifying problem mudrocks using index tests. In: Problematic Soils. (Ed. I. Jefferson, EJ Murray, E. Faragher & PR Fleming). Thomas Telford Cripps, J.C. & Czerewko, M.A. & Brashaw, P Limestone landform simulation in quarry restoration, part 3. Mineral Planning. 91, Crofts A and Jefferson R G (eds) The Lowland Grassland Management Handbook. 2nd Edition. English Nature/ the Wildlife Trusts. Peterborough. Crowther H.V. (1997). Sustainability of plant growth on reconstructed limestone quarry landforms. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis. University of Manchester. Cullen W.R., Wheater C.P. & Dunleavy P.J. (1998). Establishment of species-rich vegetation on reclaimed limestone quarry faces in Derbyshire, UK. Biological Conservation 84, Czerewko, M.A. & Cripps, J.C Assessing the durability of mudrocks using the modified jar slake test. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 34, Dalgleish I Cost-effective drilling and blasting. Quarry Management, January, Davis B.N.K (1982) Ecology of quarries: the importance of natural vegetation. ITE Symposium no. 11. NERC. Davis B.N.K., Walker N, Ball D.F. & Fitter A.H. (1992) The New Naturalist. The soil. Harper Collins, London. DETR (1997). The Reclamation of Limestone Quarries using Landform Replication. HMSO, London DETR (2000) Effectiveness of provisions for the aftercare of mineral workings, HMSO London DETR (1997) The Reclamation of Limestone Quarries using Landform Replication, HMSO, London DETR (1997) The Reclamation of Limestone Quarries using Landform Replication, HMSO, London Dobson M.C. & Moffat A.J. (1993) The potential for woodland establishment on landfill sites. HMSO, London DoE (1988) Handbook on the Hydrogeology & Stability of Excavated Slopes in Quarries. Prepared by Geoffrey Walton Practice for the Department of the Environment, HMSO, London DoE (1991) Handbook on the Design of Tips & Related Structures. Prepared by Geoffrey Walton Practice for the Department of the Environment, HMSO, London DoT (1993). Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 11: Environmental Assessment. (together with subsequent additions). HMSO, London. 76

82 Dryden R (1997) Habitat restoration project : fact sheet & bibliographies. EN RR No 260. English Nature, Peterborough. Dumbleton M. J. & West G. (1976) Preliminary sources of information for site investigation in Britain. TRRL Report 403, Crowthorne. ECUS (2002) Reclamation of Limestone Quarries by Landform Simulation Summary of Lessons learnt from Trial Sites, (DTLR), HMSO, London ECUS & R Moorhead & Laing (1994) The reclamation & management of Metalliferous Mining Sites, HMSO ECUS. 2002(b). Reclamation of limestone quarries by landform simulation. Full report on monitoring of trial sites. Final report. London, DTLR. HMSO, Norwich. (2 vol). Ellison R. A. & Smith A. (1997) A guide to sources of earth science information for planning and development. British Geological Survey technical Report WA/97/85. English Nature (1994). Species Conservation Handbook. English Nature.Hydology and mineral workings (1994): Effects on nature conservation Guidelines. No English Nature Research Reports English Nature 1994, Hyrdrology and mineral workings Effects on nature conservation. Trechnical Annexe No. 106 English Nature Research Reports English Nature, Quarry Products Association & Moulding Sands Association (2002) English Nature, Quarry Products Association and Silica & Moulding Sands Association (1999). Biodiversity and minerals Extracting the benefits for wildlife. Published by Entec UK Ltd. English Nature, Quarry Products Association and Silica & Moulding Sands Association (2003). Geodiversity and minerals Conserving our geological heritage. Published by Entec UK Ltd. Entec. Biodiversity and minerals Extracting the benefits for wildlife. Entec UK Ltd. Environmental Advisory Unit (1988) Heathland Restoration: A handbook of techniques. British Gas. Enviros Aspinwall (2000) Effectiveness of Provisions for the Aftercare of Mineral Workings. (DTLR), HMSO, London European Commission (1992) The 'Habitats' Directive 92/43/EEC. European Commission (2000). Managing Natura 2000 Sites:The Provisions of Article 6 of the 'Habitats' 'Directive 92/43/EEC Fell R. (1994). Landslide risk assessment and acceptable risk. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Fookes P. G. (1997) The geological model, prediction and performance. 1st Glossop Lecture. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 30, Forestry Commission (1991) Community woodland design: guidelines. HMSO, London. Franklin J. A. & Dusseault M. B. (1989) Rock Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, 600pp. 77

83 Gagen P. (1988) The evolution of quarried limestone rock slopes in the English Peak District. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Manchester Metropolitan University. Gallagher E. M. G., Needham A. D. & Smith D. M Use of geosynthetics in landfill steepwall lining systems. (In: Proceedings of IGS Symposium: Geosynthetics: Protecting the environment, Thomas Telford, London, 2003, Geodiversity and minerals a guide to planning, operating, restoring and managing sites for geological construction. English Nature, Peterborough. Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party Report (1995) The description and classification of weathered rock for engineering purposes. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 28, Gilbert O.L & Anderson P (1998) Habitat creation and repair. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Gimingham C H (1992). The Lowland Heath Management Handbook, English Nature, Peterborough. Grime J.P., Hodgson J.G. & Hunt R (1988) Comparative plant ecology: a functional approach to common British species. Unwin Hyman, London. Gunn J, Bailey D & Handley J (1997) The reclamation of limestone quarries using landfrom replication. DETR. HMSO, London. Hoek E (1998) Putting numbers to geology an engineers viewpoint. 2nd Glossop Lecture. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 32, Hoek E. & Bray J. W. (1981) Rock Slope Engineering. Institution of Mining and metallurgy, London, 527pp. Hoek E Practical rock engineering. Hoek s Notes. Rockscience web page. ( Horticultural Trades Association (1997). National Plant Specification. HSE (1999). Health and safety at quarries. Quarries regulations- Approved code of practice. Health and Safety Executive Book. Hudson J. A., & Harrison J. P. (1997) Engineering Rock Mechanics. An Introduction to the Principles. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 444pp. Humphries R.N. (1980) Establishment of vegetation on calcareous quarry and chemical waste materials. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Liverpool University. Hustrulid W Blasting principles for open pit mining. Volume 2 Theoretical foundations. A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam, p Hutchinson J. N. (2001). Reading the ground: Morphology and geology in site appraisal. 4th Glossop lecture. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 34, Institute Of Environmental Assessment (1995). Guidelines for the Baseline Ecological Input to Environmental Assessment in the UK. E and F.N Spons. London and New York Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment and the Landscape Institute (2002). Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment. (2nd ed). IEMA, London. JNCC. (1993). Handbook for Phase 1 Habitat Survey Land Use Consultants (1992) Amenity reclamation of mineral workings. DoE. HMSO, London 78

84 Land Use Consultants (1992) Amenity Reclamation of Mineral Workings (Main Report), HMSO Land Use Consultants & Wardell Armstrong (1996) The Reclamation of Damaged Land for Nature Conservation, HMSO Landscape Institute (1996). Technical Bulletin : Water Restrictions and Watering Specification. Lickorish S, Luscombe G & Scott R (1997) Wildflowers work: a technical guide to creating and managing wildflower landscapes. Landlife, Liverpool. MAFF (2000). Good Practice Guide for Handling Soils (version 04/00). FRCA, Cambridge. Matheson G. D. (1983) Rock Stability Assessment in Preliminary Site Investigations Graphical Methods. TRRL Laboratory Report Matheson G. D The stability of excavated slopes exposing rock (In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Failures in Earthworks. Institution of Civil Engineers, London, ) Merritt A (1994) Wetlands, industry & wildlife a manual of principles and practices. Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust Mitchley J, Burch F, Buckley P & Watt T.A. (2000) Habitat restoration monitoring handbook. English Nature Research Report no English Nature. Moffat A & McNeill J (1994) Reclaiming disturbed land for forestry. Forestry Commission Bulletin 110. HMSO, London. Moorehead and Laing (1995). Slate Tips and Workings in Britain, HMSO Nature Conservancy Council (1988) Site management plans for nature conservation: a working guide. NCC, Peterborough. Nettleton I. M. & McMillan P. (2000). Risk based rock slope maintainance management (In: Proceedings of the steep slopes seminars 13 th, 15 th & 22 nd June 2000, Manchester, Birmingham & London. Ground Engineering, Emap: London, UK, 6-8). Nicholson D., Tse C. M., And Perry C. (1999) The Observation Method in Ground Engineering. Principles and Applications. CIRIA Report R185 Oxford M.J (2000) DEVELOPING Naturally: A Handbook for Incorporating the Natural Environment Into Planning and Development. ENGLISH Nature and Association of Local Government Ecologists. Parker D.M (1995) Habitat creation A critical guide. English Nature Science Report no. 21. English Nature. 190 pp. Peterken G F (1993). Woodland Conservation and Management, Second edition. Chapman and Hall, London. Puri G (2002) Soil restoration and nature conservation. Information and Advisory Note No 150, February Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh Ratcliffe D. (1977). A nature conservation Review. Vols 1and 2. Cambridge University Press RMC (1987) A practical guide to restoration. RMC group Plc. 79

85 Rodwell J (1991 et seq) British Plant Communiites. Volume 1-5. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Rodwell J.S & Patterson G.S (1994) Creating new native woodland. Forestry Commission Bulletin 112. HMSO, London. RPS Clouston & Wye College (1996) Guidance on Good Practice for the Reclamation of Mineral Workings to Agriculture, HMSO RSPB (1999) Good practice guide to mineral restoration. RSPB, Sandy. RSPB, EN and ITE (1997). The wet grassland Guide: managing floodplain and coastal wet grasslands for wildlife. The RSPB, Sandy. Scottish Executive (2003) Planning Advice Note 64: Reclamation for Surface Mineral Workings. Scottish Executive, Edinburgh. Scottish Office Development Department (1998) Cost Effective Landscape: Learning from Nature Landscape Design & Management Policy, The Scottish Office, Edinburgh Simons N., Menzies B. & Matthews M. (2002). A Short Course in Geotechnical Site Investigation. Thomas Telford Publishing, p353. Smith M. R., (ed) (1999) Stone: Building stone, rock fill and armour stone in construction. Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publication, 16. Sutherland (1996) Ecological Census techniques: A Handbook. Cambridge University press. Symonds Group (2002) Geological Conservation of Unconsolidated Sediments in Quarry Exposures. (DTLR) HMSO, London The Countryside Agency and Scottish Natural Heritage (2002). Landscape Character Tonks D. M., Needham A. N. & Nettleton I. M. (2003). Sustainability, maintenance and re-use of existing infrastructure-some geotechnical aspects. ISSFME Conference, 25 th -28 th August 2003, Prague. UK Biodiversity Group (1998-9). Tranche 2 Action Plans Volumes I to VI. UKBG/English Nature. Peterborough. UK Biodiversity Steering Group (1995). Biodiversity: the UK Steering Group Report. Volume I and II. Meeting the Rio Challenge. HMSO. London. Varnes D. J. (1978). Slope movement types and processes (In: Schuster, R. L. & Krozek R. J. (ed). Landslide analysis and control. Special Report 176, Transport & Road Research Board, National Academy of Science, Washington DC, ). Walton G., Practice (1993). Technical Audit of Limestone Rock Landforms constructed by the Restoration Blasting Technique. Wardle Armstrong. (1998) Effective Approaches and Techniques in Landscaping and Reclamation of Hard Rock Quarries. DETR Unpublished Watson D (2000) Wildlife management and habitat creation on landfill sites: a manual of best practice. Ecoscope Applied Ecologists. White G.J & Gilbert J.C (2003) Habitat creation for the minerals industry. The RSPB, Sandy. 80

86 Williamson J, Rowe E, Rendell T, Healey J, Jones D and Nason M (2003) Restoring habitats of high conservation value after quarrying: best practice manual. Institute of Environmental Science, University of Wales, Bangor. 81

87 APPENDIX 3. (Steering Group and Advisory Correspondence Group associated with the project) 82

88 Appendix 3 project Steering Group and Advisory Correspondence Group associated with the Steering Group Membership: Derren Cresswell MIRO Roger Orpin ODPM David Bent Peak District National Park David Evans English Nature Peter Delstrother Hanson David Park La Farge Aggregates George Elliott Tarmac David Parrish Yorkshire Dales National Park Lawrence Crump Hanson Advisory Correspondence Group: Phillip Brashaw Landscape Design Associates Geoff Walton G. Walton Associates Rhordi Thomas Peak District Dave Johnson Vibrock Tim Wilton Vibrock Tony Cosgrove English Nature Duncan Wardrop La Farge Aggregates Brian Marker ODPM Paul Brewer Tarmac 83

89 APPENDIX 4. (Technical Expertise, Publications and Guidance) 84

90 Appendix 4. Technical Expertise, Publications and Guidance (adapted from Williamson et al 2003) Publication White G.J & Gilbert J.C (2003) Habitat creation for the minerals industry. The RSPB, Sandy. Williamson J. Rowe E. Rendell T. Healey J. Jones, D. and Nason, M. (2003) Restoring habitats of high conservation value after quarrying: best practice manual. Institute of Environmental Science, University of Wales, Bangor. Emphasis and summary Nature conservation Habitat design and creation techniques for a range of Biodiversity Action Plan priority habitats Includes best practice guidance for planning & site management Illustrated with case studies Nature conservation Principles of ecological restoration & habitat creation Practical guidance on plant establishment Deals specifically with slate quarrying but can be applied to other mineral sites Anderson P (2003) Habitat translocation a best practice guide. CIRIA, London. English Nature, Quarry Products Association & Moulding Sands Association (2002) Geodiversity and minerals a guide to planning, operating, restoring and managing sites for geological construction. English Nature, Peterborough. Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment and the Landscape Institute (2 nd ed) (2002). Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment. IEMA, London. Nature conservation National and local geodiversity conservation strategies applied to the minerals industry General guidance on good practice in the preparation of Landscape and Visual Impact Assessments. ECUS Ltd (2002) Reclamation of limestone quarries by landform simulation summary of lessons learnt from trial sites. DETR. HMSO, London. Landscape Restoration blasting The Countryside Agency and Scottish Natural Heritage (2002). Landscape Character Assessment Guidance for England and Scotland. The Countryside Agency, Cheltenham. A practical guide to Landscape Character Contains examples of Landscape Character Assessment in practice Watson D (2000) Wildlife management and habitat creation on landfill sites: a manual of best practice. Ecoscope Applied Ecologists. Nature conservation Techniques for creating a broad range of habitats on landfill sites Operational and engineering constraints Illustrated with case studies 85

91 Oxford M.J. (2000) Developing naturally: a handbook for incorporating the natural environment into planning and development ALGE Relevant planning guidance, codes of practice, and British Standards associated with habitat creation or restoration Mitchley, J Burch, F Buckley P & Watt T.A (2000) Habitat restoration monitoring handbook. English Nature Research Report no English Nature, Peterborough. Nature conservation Implementation of monitoring methods and prescriptions Includes checklists Bending, N.A.D, McRae, S.G & Moffat. A.J (1999) Soil forming materials: their use in land reclamation. DETR. HMSO, London. English Nature, Quarry Products Association & Moulding Sands Association (1999) Biodiversity and minerals Extracting the benefits for wildlife. Entec UK Ltd, London. Use of soil-forming materials for reclamation to agriculture, forestry & nature conservation Minimum restoration standards Selection of soil amendment Detailed user notes Nature conservation National and local biodiversity conservation strategies applied to the minerals industry The RSPB (1999) Good practice guide to mineral restoration. RSPB, Sandy. Gilbert, O.L & Anderson, P (1998) Habitat creation and repair. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Gunn J, Bailey D & Handley J (1997) The reclamation of limestone quarries using landfrom replication. DETR. HMSO, London. Nature conservation Principles and technicalities of the creation of all major UK habitats Covers site survey through to final design and implementation Includes best practice guidance Landscape Dryden, R (1997) Habitat restoration project : fact sheet & bibliographies. EN RR No 260. English Nature, Peterborough. Land Use Consultants (1996) Reclamation of damaged land for nature conservation. HMSO, London. Parker D.M (1995) Habitat creation A critical guide. English Nature Science Report no. 21. English Nature, Peterborough. Nature conservation Nature conservation Strategies for nature conservation, planning, management Case studies for decision-makers; Technical fact sheets on establishing a range of habitats for practitioners. Nature conservation Project management for habitat creation Includes checklists & techniques for creating a range of UK habitats 86

92 Merritt A (1994) Wetlands, industry & wildlife a manual of principles and practices. Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust Nature conservation Rodwell J.S & Patterson G.S (1994) Creating new native woodland. Forestry Commission Bulletin 112. HMSO, London. Nature conservation Moffat A & McNeill J (1994) Reclaiming disturbed land for forestry. Forestry Commission Bulletin 110. HMSO, London. Land Use Consultants (1992) Amenity reclamation of mineral workings. DoE. HMSO, London Environmental Advisory Unit (1988) Heathland Restoration: A handbook of techniques. British Gas. Forestry Nature conservation Aid to decision making on choice of amenity after use and reclamation techniques adopted End uses include: sports & active recreation, watersports, informal recreation & conservation Case studies Nature conservation Techniques for heathland restoration and aftercare Davis B.N.K (1982) Ecology of quarries: the importance of natural vegetation. ITE Symposium no. 11. NERC. Nature conservation Natural regeneration of different quarry substrates 87

93 APPENDIX 5. (Tables 1, 2 and 3) 88

94 Table 1. Examples of Reclamation Opportunities After use End use Design considerations & Comments Example Amenity Natural Conservation Clee Hill, Shropshire Geo- & Eco-conservation by operator. Viewing point and information provided. Lake feature prevents access to ravelling exposure. Amenity Planned Water Use Batts Coomb Quarry Planned use for creation of lake on completion of operations. Lake to serve as groundwater balancing lake (EA) and for recreational amenity. High working faces subjected to progressive restoration, includes bench planting as highly visible hillside quarry, improve long range skyline view. Scene from viewing point Ribblesdale Quarry N. Yorkshire After-use option planned for Ribblesdale Quarry, adjacent to the River Ribble is for a planned water use including lake, walks, and geological conservation. Batts Coomb Quarry Built Development Residential Brincliffe Quarry Sheffield Development of older sites in hard rock. Sites generally small over 1-5 hectares. Faces generally only 1-2 lifts. Appropriate engineered remedial works required to meet safety requirements. Ribblesdale Quarry Built Development Recreational-Educational Bodelva Pit Eden Project Rock slope remedial works including heavy shotcrete application and bolting. Other examples of this type of recreational use includes the national Stone Centre, Middleton-by-Wirksworth (Carboniferous Limestone) and the proposed Rainbow Centre at Dry Brook Quarry, Gloucestershire Luxury residential development Built Development Leisure Shopping Former Quarry, Woodside Sheffield Opportunities also include garden centres, caravan sites, utilities storage sites etc. Rock slope remedial works including masonry support, anchors, catch fencing & netting. The Eden Project Retail shopping opportunity in an abandoned quarry, alongside a major road. 89

95 Table 1(Cont.) Examples of Reclamation Opportunities After use End use Design considerations & Comments Example Built Development Leisure Specialist Sport, Equestrian Centre. Howick Quarry Northamberland Innovative and targeted end use specified by landowner. Ongoing reclamation in line with approved outline for scheme to provide: central access ramp, lake, zone for building development, grazing and exercise area. Peripheral planting of dense uninviting vegetation to discourage trespassing. Built Development Commercial Office Development Former Quarry, Graystones Sheffield Implementation of commercial development in abandoned hard rock quarry site. Rock remedial works to reduce risk. Effective selection of perimeter planting, restricting access to rock face, and providing aesthetic improvement. Design implementation to establish vegetation during quarry operation. Commercial Development Carp fish farming Geological & Wildlife Conservation Frosterly Quarry, Co. Duhram Sustainable, low impact development in an area of high groundwater table. Adjacent to a water based wildlife sanctuary, which also serves as the type locality for the Frosterly Marble. Sheffield office development Landfill Deerplay Quarry, Lancashire Construction of landfills in deep quarries, utilising steep sidewall liner systems. Self sustained carp farm. Constructed landfill cell prior to filling. 90

96 Table 1 (Cont.) Examples of Reclamation Opportunities After use End use Design considerations & Comments Example Agriculture Bolsover Quarry, Derbyshire Creation of engineered subsoil & topsoil required imported material. Reduce slope angle by use of shallower inclination final blast hole design Heavy perimeter scree planting. Amenity Recreation management Fishing Lake Little Mill Quarry, Northuberland Creation of managed lake contiguous with former worked face. Groundwater management via control overflow boreholes. Lake stocked with fish and the site maintained by local fishing club. Creation of arable & grazing after use Amenity Conservation Recreation management Trowbarrow Quarry, Lancashire The site is managed by the local AONB Countryside Management Service. Geological (SSSI) and Nature conservation. The site includes areas for climbing, with involvement from British Mountaineering Council. Provision of information notice-board and nature trails. Areas of instability fenced off. Creation of lake for recreational fishing Amenity Informal Recreation & Industrial Archaeology Public Access Millers Dale Quarry, Debyshire Notice-board provided for nature, geology and industrial history. Site monitored by nature conservation trust. Managed natural climbing resource. Amenity Natural & Industrial Heritage Geo-, Eco-, Industrial Conservation Lee Quarry, Derbyshire Scheme undertaken by consortium including local council, historical and nature trusts and former operator. Sign-posted industrial archaeology & nature trails. Provision of barriers and warning signs for safety. Ongoing perimeter vegetation establishment trials. Site of ecological importance Views into former gallery workings Creation of signposted routes & information boards 91

97 Table 2 Rock Slope failure mechanisms PRINCIPAL MECHANISMS (& DESCRIPTION geometric variation) Plane - (includes single plane; bi-planar; multi-planar; Movement down a discontinuity plane. stepped geometries: Occurs in both rock and soil masses) General criteria for failure are: Discontinuity dip < slope angle Discontinuity dip > friction angle of discontinuity plane Discontinuity plane must daylight on the face Dip direction should generally be within ± 20 of the face dip direction EXAMPLE Plane failure (Whatley Quarry, Wiltshire) Wedge Movement of a wedge shaped rock mass down two intersecting discontinuity planes in the direction of the intersection. General criteria for failure are: Intersection must dip < face angle Intersection must dip > friction angle of discontinuity planes Intersection must daylight on the face Wedges may repeat at intervals due to nature of intersecting discontinuity planes. Wedge geometry (Arcow Quarry, Yorkshire) Curvilinear failure (rotational, circular) Occurs in soil masses, soft rock masses and heavily jointed or broken hard rock masses. Materials behave like an engineering soil & a rotational slip occurs through the rock mass, forming a circular spoon like geometry. Circular failure through closely jointed interbedded siltstone and sandstone (Lee Quarry, Lancashire) 92

98 Table 2. Rock Slope failure mechanisms. PRINCIPAL MECHANISMS (& geometric variation) Toppling (includes flexural & block) DESCRIPTION Movement out of the slope of elongated overbalanced blocks, developing due to rotation about the toe of the block. Essentially, once the weight of the block acts beyond the toe of the block, the block will topple. General criteria for failure are: Steeply inclined discontinuity dipping into the slope. Basal release discontinuity which must either dip out of the slope, at < friction angle of discontinuity, or be subhorizontal. May require steeply inclined discontinuity forming a side release plane. Discontinuity set spacing producing elongated, overbalanced blocks which lean out of the slope are produced. EXAMPLE Potential flexural toppling. (Ratho Quarry, Mid-Lothian) Block Fall Sporadic, un-preceded detachment & falling from a host rock Potential block fall. slope of an isolated, protruding, unsupported boulder-sized (Tunstead Quarry, Derbyshire) block (>200mm*). Fall is initiated by: Gravity: initiated by removal of support due to ravelling & blockfall Weathering: propagation of a discontinuity plane between block & rock slope where load stress of the block > the shear and tensile strength of the connecting material plane. Movement is rapid & the block may dislodge further material from the rock face. Fall material generally accumulates at the toe of the slope. May subsequently involve bouncing, rolling, sliding & fragmentation of the block/s. Block dimensions are governed by spacing & orientation of discontinuities (natural or blast induced) within the rock mass. Ravelling Ravelling is a near surface mechanism generally occurring in weak or closely fractured (natural and blast induced discontinuities) rock masses. Continuous, detachment & fall of mineral grains, gravel sized (2-60mm*) fragments & occasional cobble sized (60-200mm*) to boulder sized (>200mm*) blocks from a rock slope. This material may fall or roll down slope forming talus on & at the toe of the slope. Driving mechanisms include long-term stress relief, physical & chemical weathering processes that gradually weaken & deteriorate inter-granular a rock mass. Ravelling results in progressive natural regression of an exposure. This proceeds until a stable slope angle between crest & toe is formed. Also see Plate. Natural ravelling of mudstone & siltstone removing support from beneath overlying sandstone. (Lee Quarry, Lancashire) According to the size categories defined in BS 5930:

99 Table 3. Examples of remedial measures. TECHNIQUE COMMENTS EXAMPLE Scaling Manual rope access work proceeds down face from crest. Machine face scaling Use of appropriate plant to enable safe working method. Machine crest scaling. Controlled blasting Pre- & Post-Split techniques - leave evidence of drill holes as half-barrels Manual scaling Face scaling Crest scaling Restoration blasting Example shows selective blasting along the upper face forming benches & reducing face angle. Formation of scree slopes on the lower face & creation of minor landscape features. Completion includes selective scaling to remove loose material. Chipping Sudbury Quarry - Line blasting producing a clean face with evidence of drill holes. Bench sculpting by blasting Trial by Humphries (1979) at Tunstead Quarry, photographed Break up the regular monotonous nature of benches (i.e. straight lines formed by benches). Use various blasting techniques including localised variation in sub drilling depth. Include localised features such as debris cones, scree etc. Dene Quarry break up regular appearance A830 Klinsadel, curved irregular benches of benches: includes continuity breaks and designed to mimic the local topography. debris cones 94