Landscape Design. Chapter 10. Bob Polomski. Learning Objectives Understand the basic principles of design. Be familiar with landscape use areas.

Transcription

1 Chapter 10 Landscape Design Bob Polomski Learning Objectives Understand the basic principles of design. Be familiar with landscape use areas. Be familiar with the steps involved in creating a basic landscape design. Understand the aesthetic contributions of plants in landscape design. Landscape Design 217

2 Landscape Design An attractive and satisfying landscape requires careful planning and sound design. Landscape design is the art of arranging and enriching outdoor spaces by creating pleasing and functional relationships with plants and structures and the natural environment. It is also a science that involves an understanding of the environmental conditions around your home and selecting appropriate plants that fit the conditions of the site. This chapter acquaints you with the basic principles of landscape design and the applications of those principles to create a functional, attractive landscape. To learn more about landscape design, refer to the resources listed at the end of this chapter. A theme can center on plants, highlighting particular colors, forms and textures. For example, the color red can be used as a theme. By locating plants with red leaves, flowers, or bark in different areas of the landscape, you can unify the entire landscape into a coherent organization of plants and structures. Other themes include straight lines or curves. Extending either straight lines or curves repeats the architecture and property boundaries that results in a natural blend of basic forms to create a unifying theme. A linear or rectilinear theme is appropriate for homes set on a standard rectangular lot. Straight lines are extended from the ends of walls, windows, sidewalks, porches and patios (Figure 10.1). A curvilinear theme creates a softer-looking landscape; Principles of Design Although each design is unique and is a form of personal expression, there are certain principles that are the hallmark of every good design. A few of these principles are discussed below. Unity ties the landscape together into an orderly design. Its purpose is to attract and hold our attention. Unity also helps us organize all of the elements in a landscape into orderly groups. In short, unity pulls together the separate elements that make up a composition into an arrangement that conveys to the viewer the quality of oneness. To achieve unity, select an overall theme that can be repeated throughout your total design composition. The theme should be in harmony with the character of your house and property. Figure 10.1 Two basic design themes: rectilinear (A) and arc and tangent (B). By extending and repeating lines that already occur in the house and property you can create a unifying design theme. Study the lines to reveal patterns and basic forms that can be used to design walkways, patios, and planting beds. Credit: A. Niedenthal, Purdue University Extension Service. Landscape Design 218

3 however, one drawback to the curvilinear concept is the loss of usable space, especially on a very small lot. Simplicity implies the elimination of every detail that does not significantly contribute to the composition. Omit details that will not have a major impact on the landscape to avoid a cluttered, haphazard look. It may mean using a limited number of paving and structural materials and colors to maximize the impact of each element. It also means avoiding the temptation to cultivate a varied assortment of plants, which is contrary to the credo of many Master Gardeners who feel that every square foot of available space must be occupied by a plant. Simplicity also implies a degree of repetition rather than constant change, with enough variety to stimulate interest. A good landscape design needs variety diverse and contrasting forms, textures and colors (Figure 10.2). Variety prevents monotony by avoiding uniformity. Adding contrast opposite or nearly opposite qualities intensifies visual interest and heightens the viewer s satisfaction with the scene or composition. Balance is a design principle that applies to the relationship between elements in the landscape. Balance is created when parts of a landscape appear of equal visual weight. Balance can be formal or symmetrical or informal or asymmetrical. Formal balance is achieved when one side of the landscape is a mirror image of the other (Figure 10.3-A). Informal balance uses unequal sizes and numbers of plants and other elements to evenly balance the visual weight of objects in the landscape. Imagine informal balance as a seesaw with a very large object on one side that s counterbalanced by many smaller-sized objects on the other. In the landscape, asymmetrical balance can be achieved by visually balancing the landscape plants with the home s architecture (Figure 10.3-B). Formal balance gives a sense of stability, stateliness and dignity. Informal balance arouses curiosity, suggests movement and possesses a dynamic quality. Repetition can be used in the landscape to create unity. Do not confuse repetition with monotony. A row of sheared hedges lined up in front and down the side of a home is not repetition it is monotony. Repetition is subtle, such as a curvilinear theme. Curves may begin in bed lines in the front yard, continue along the side and be repeated in the backyard. Repeating the use of ground cov- Figure 10.2 Using variety, simplicity, and repetition in design. A B C Variety created through sharp opposition between the low horizontal mass and the vertical are illustrated in (A) and (B); (C) shows a more subtle kind of variety through using a larger size of the same plant form. The composition above has simplicity through repetition, yet with variety. The lower rounded plants are used in sufficient numbers to provide a pleasing balance and proportion to the two small evergreens and the small tree. Too much variety results when there are too many vertical elements or too many different forms. The composition above is distracting, even though the low-growing shrub is repeated throughout, because there is no focal point that allows the viewer to differentiate the more important elements from the less important ones. Landscape Design 219

4 Figure 10.3 Types of balance. A B In a symmetrical or formal balance, one side of the landscape mirrors the other. Asymmetrical or informal balance. The collection of shrubs and tree on the lighter side of the house is visually balanced by a gable facing to the front on the other side. Figure 10.4 The repeated use of ground covers in the background and foreground helps to unite the foundation area and the planting beds adjoining the walk. Credit: G. Pierceall, Purdue University. ers ties the plantings together across an entry walk (Figure 10.4). By subtly repeating elements, you can achieve continuity or flow throughout the landscape. When done well, the appearance and reappearance of a consistently similar element stimulates recall in the viewer s mind, thus creating a look and feel of cohesiveness to the overall composition. Rhythm is a sequence of movement and rest. Elements in the landscape direct the eye through the design. Rhythm results only when the elements appear in regular measures and in a definite direction. Rhythm can be expressed in form, color, texture, or size (Figure 10.5). Accent, also called dominance, focalization, climax, or emphasis, is the process of separating the more important elements from the less important ones. It implies dominance of certain elements and the subordination of others. Accent can be gained by limiting the number of dominant points in the landscape; by stressing differences in the size of the elements; by grouping several elements together to give them significance; by introducing the usual or unexpected; and by the decisive use of bold shapes, intense color, or dramatic texture contrasts (Figure 10.6). Through the use of accent, you can capture the viewer s attention by stressing one element over others. Scale or proportion refers to the way objects relate to each other in size. Scale is used to evoke emotion. Monumental scale overwhelms or humbles the observer. Intimate scale, which uses undersized or smaller than expected objects, such as dwarf plants or miniature roes, increases the viewer s sense of self-importance. Normal scale, which we expect, offers the viewer a sense of security. Harmony is achieved through a pleasing arrangement of parts, incorporating the principles of good design into a landscape plan (Figure 10.7). Landscape Design 220

5 Figure 10.5 Creating rhythm in landscape plantings. Rhythm can be achieved most simply through changes in size (indicated by the arrow). It can also be gained through the use of color or texture. Rhythm can be reoccurrence of units in linear movement. The composition above has three units. The viewer s attention in initially drawn to unit 1 because of the tree form. The viewer reads this unit as a self-contained element that is satisfying because of its accent, balance, simplicity, and variety. The viewer s attention then moves to unit 2, and finally to unit 3. Rhythm is achieved here by alternating a large mass of shrubs with a small mass of trees. Figure 10.6 Accent can be achieved through... Figure 10.7 Harmony. Differences in size Grouping Harmony Bold shapes The unusual or unexpected Lack of harmony Landscape Design 221

6 The Design Process: Drawing a Landscape Plan The basic process in creating a detailed plan follows these 6 steps: 1. Create a base map of your property and inventory your site. 2. Analyze the site and list your needs. 3. Transform your site analysis and user needs into graphic form. 4. Create functional diagrams. 5. Develop a preliminary design. 6. Create a final landscape design. Research Phase Step 1: Create a base map and conduct a site inventory. In other words, locate your property lines and determine what already exists on your site. The base map or base plan is simply a sketch of your house and property drawn to scale that show property lines, location of residence and the north/ south orientation. It s drawn from a bird s eye view of your lot as if you were in the sky and looking down on your property. This overhead look or plan view depicts all of the existing elements on your property. It shows the placement of your house on the property, its orientation to the sun, hard structures, such as driveway, walks, deck or patio, and the location of utilities. To prepare a base map of your home grounds, you will need a pencil, ruler, eraser, grid paper, house plans or a plat map, tracing paper and a 100-ft. measuring tape. Alternatively, you can dispense with hand drawings by using a computer software design program. Using the plat map or house plans, transfer the outline of your house and surrounding property to a sheet of grid paper. Unlined paper is fine, but grid paper is more user-friendly. You can select a scale where each 1 / 4 inch grid equals 1 foot, which allows you to use scales of 1 in. = 4 ft., 1 in. = 8 ft. and 1 in. = 16 ft. (Figure 10.8). If you trace or photocopy your home and property lines onto a sheet of grid paper, pay attention to the original scale. If this scale is not marked clearly or if the map has been enlarged or reduced, you have to determine the exact scale. Measure the length of an obvious feature on the map, such as the length of one side of the house. Then go outside and measure the actual length of the house so you can relate one unit of measurement to a certain number of actual Figure 10.8 Grid paper makes it easier to draw a more exact base plan and site inventory. It s also convenient for scale drawing because each square represents a unit of measure. feet. For example, use a simple expression such as one inch on my map equals number of feet on the ground. Without a plat or house plans, you need to make your own measurements. With your 100-ft. tape, measure at right angles from a house corner to the property lines and from the corner to the road to establish where your house sits on your property (Figure 10.9). Identify north on the plan. Draw the following structures, features and other permanent landmarks to scale (Figure A): doors, windows, porches and location of rooms; deck, patio, walks and driveways; garage and other buildings; fences and walls; existing plants: trees, shrubs and flower beds; draw circles to show their location and note their names, if you can; septic tank, sewer lines and under- and aboveground utility lines. Now transfer your rough sketch to a more formal version (Figure B). Make several copies of this base map, which will be the base of future drawings. The base plan should include doors, windows, steps and interior layout of the inside to create a seamless indoor-outdoor landscape design that appears to be an extension of your home. The next step is to conduct a site inventory. You can document it on your base map (Figure 10.12); however, it may be better to use a separate sheet of paper. Lay a sheet of tracing paper on top Landscape Design 222

7 Figure 10.9 When measuring a landscape, measure distances at right angles from a fixed point on your home. Any corner can be used where objects won t interfere with your view. Figure On the base plan, draw the lot, house, and existing features. Credit: R. R. Rothenberger, University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Service. Credit: R. R. Rothenberger, University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Service. of your base map and label it Site Inventory. On this overlay, make notes about the following features on your property: Light conditions: sun morning, afternoon and full sun and shade patterns. Sun and shade patterns change with the seasons and vary each minute of the day. The sun is higher and shadows are shorter in the summer than in the winter (Figure 10.13). Note the soil texture: clay, sand, or loam. As discussed in Chapter 1, soil texture affects many of your decisions, including plant selection, the amount of lime or fertilizer to apply, the type of fertilizer to use, choice of irrigation method and the amount of irrigation. If new soil was brought onto the site, make a note to sample the soil and have it tested for ph and fertility levels. Note the topography the rise and fall of the land. Record the presence of ravines or ridges, and any rocks or outcroppings. Use an arrow to show the direction of surface water flow. A land surveyor can be commissioned to produce a topographic survey of your property, which locates the site s elevations. Examine drainage patterns and use directional arrows for water movement across the site. Identify microclimates areas with environmental conditions that differ from nearby areas. For example, it could be a south-facing spot between two large rocks which is warmer in winter than an open area facing the same direction. It will also be the hottest area in the summer time. A microclimate could also be an area that receives more water, such as drainage from the roof or low spots where water collects. Identify the location of power lines and underground utilities. This will help you avoid damag- Landscape Design 223

8 Figure Rough sketch and finished drawing of a base map. A B Credit: R. R. Rothenberger, University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Service. Figure Base map and site inventory of home and lot drawn to scale. Figure Seasonal orientation of the sun throughout the year. Credit: M. T. Haque et al., Clemson University. Credit: G. L. Wade, University of Ga. Coop. Ext. Serv. Landscape Design 224

9 Figure Using graphics and text on the site inventory map. Show all utilities and easements which might influence landscape planning. Indicate where these utilities attach to the house. Indicate property boundaries with a double-dashed line. Indicate their corresponding dimensions as shown. Show the direction of prevailing winter winds and summer breezes so they can be accommodated in the design details. Indicate North. Note the location of outdoor water faucets. Indicate the location of specialized site conditions which may influence development: shady areas, wet spots, rock outcrops, septic fields, filled areas, etc. Indicate any construction features on the property. Locate all buildings, showing the room layout and the placement of doors and windows. This information is vital when designing your garden so important linkages between indoor and outdoor spaces can be made accurately. Credit: A. Niedenthal, Purdue University Extension Service. Landscape Design 225

10 Testing Drainage: The Percolation Test To test drainage, 1. Dig a hole with a shovel or posthole digger about 12 to 24 inches deep with even sides from top to bottom. The bottom of the hole should be flat. 2. Fill the hole with water and let it stand for about an hour to prewet the soil. 3. Refill the hole with water to within a few inches of the top. 4. Place a stick across the hole and use a measuring tape or ruler to note the water level as it drops over time. 5. Allow the water to drain for at least an hour (2 to 3 hours will give you a more accurate reading of the average percolation rate for your soil). 6. Determine the average drop in water level per hour. If the water level has dropped more than one inch per hour, drainage is adequate for plants requiring well-drained soil. If the water level dropped one-half inch to one inch per hour, this moderately well-drained soil is acceptable for many species including wet-tolerant plants. If the poorly drained soil drains less than one-half inch per hour, your choice of plant material for this area will be limited to wet-tolerant plants or plants that tolerate wet feet. Figure A Site analysis. Use a measured drawing of your property on which to record all the site inventory. A Credit: A. Niedenthal, Purdue University Extension Service. ing utility lines while digging and includes gas, water, sewer, phone, cable TV and power lines. Call Before You Dig ( to have your lines marked for you by dialing 811. Indicate views using arrows into and away from your lot as well as noise from adjacent areas. Modified from Soil Drainage, E. Thomas Smiley and Thomas R. Martin, Bartlett Tree Research Laboratories, Charlotte, NC. Step 2. Conduct a site analysis and user needs analysis. With a site analysis, you critically assess the existing features on your property and consider their effects on you and your household. For clarity, document your observations on a separate sheet of tracing paper placed over your base map and site inventory map. Use symbols to clearly convey information about the site without obscuring other details (Figure 10.14). Your analysis should include arrows that indicate the direction of prevailing winds and any exceptional views on your property that should remain Landscape Design 226

11 Figure B Site analysis of the property. B sheet where salt spray may be a problem. Refer to the checklist in Table 10.1 to help you conduct a thorough site analysis. The user needs analysis begins with a written list of your needs and desires for your outdoor living area. A few of the activity and service needs include: cooking and dining entertaining large or small groups games and sports children s play area vegetable and/or flower garden small and/or tree fruit pet area RV, boat, etc. water garden Take into account the physical abilities of the users and their ability to perform different maintenance jobs. Wheelchair access requires wide paths. Raised beds are helpful for gardeners who have difficulty kneeling. Users should consider the amount of time available to spend in maintaining the landscape (refer to the box on p. 245 for information about low maintenance landscape ideas). Irrigation is becoming a common feature in home landscapes. However, in-ground automated watering systems are not needed in every landscape. Credit: G. L. Wade, University of Ga. Coop. Ext. Serv. unobstructed (Figure A). Note if barriers need to be erected or planted to block or divert the wind. Also, look for any undesirable features that may need to be hidden by a living fence of shrubs or trees to screen a dog pen or buffer a patio area from noise (Figure B). Examine natural elements, such as existing trees, rock outcroppings, streams and slopes. Evaluate the condition of trees and note if any need to be treated or removed. Consider saving deciduous trees that shade the west and south sides of your home in summer to reduce air conditioning costs. In the winter, their leafless canopies will admit the sun s rays to warm your home. Identify poorly drained areas. Note the direction that water flows from your property and comment on areas that are predisposed to erosion. See if water from adjacent lots runs onto your own. Coastal residents need to mark areas on their site analysis Landscape Designers and Landscape Architects: What s the Difference? In South Carolina, anyone using the title of landscape architect or practicing landscape architecture must be licensed by the state. Landscape architects who specialize in residential design integrate the home and other constructed elements with the natural, outdoor space. Incorporating engineering, horticulture and art, landscape architects address grading and drainage issues, select appropriate plants and produce specifications regarding the construction of walks, fences, lighting and irrigation systems. They prepare detailed construction plans and documents. A landscape designer combines horticulture with art to create an outdoor space that is suitable for the location and fits into the surroundings. A landscape contractor executes the plans created by a landscape architect or a landscape designer. Some design-build firms create designs and install the plants and construction features. Landscape Design 227

12 Table 10.1 Site analysis checklist questions. Ask yourself: What do I need? Are there any sunken areas that need to be filled? Do Does you feel water that drain any onto slopes walks are too and steep? drives? Does water stand on paved areas? Is drainage poor from the house or other structures? Are there drainage problems from or onto a neighbor s property? Is septic tank drainage a consideration? Does drainage from roof adversely affect ground drainage or plantings? Are there eroded areas on the site? Are there any areas that cause dust problems? Do any trees or shrubs need to be removed? Does the lawn need improvement? Are there any trees or shrubs which you feel are particularly outstanding or of special interest? Are there bodies of water or rock outcroppings that you want to feature? Do you feel a general need for more protection from sun or wind outdoors? Do unshaded paved areas increase the temperature of your yard in the summer? Are there any areas like doorways that are a problem in the winter? Could the climate within your home and garden be improved by shade to decrease heat or by wind protection to protect from cold? Are there specific good or bad views? Are there any bright lights or signs that you find disturbing? Are there any noises from a nearby road, school, etc. that are a problem? Are there any views that your neighbors have of your property that you want to change? Is there a problem with people trespassing through your yard? Would you like to invite neighborly visits? Do any walks or drives need to be changed? Do you have adequate space for parking? Are any walks or drives inconvenient (do not lie where everyone tends to walk, dangerous intersection between drive and road, etc.)? Is the pavement or gravel material unsatisfactory (too much heat or glare, slippery in the rain, not in harmony with the materials used in the house, etc.)? Are you capturing the breezes by utilizing open planning, decks and balconies? Are you maximizing ventilation by the use of breezeways, screened patios and louvered walls? Credit: M. T. Haque et al., Clemson University. Do some research at this stage to determine your potential watering needs and whether all or a portion of your landscape will be irrigated. Once you ve decided on an irrigation system, design it efficiently. Flower beds should be irrigated separately from lawn areas, and high-water-use zones from low- water-use zones. Add the irrigation plan to your landscape design. For a detailed discussion of residential irrigation, refer to Chapter 11. The user analysis checklist in Table 10.2 will help you inventory your household s needs. After you ve listed your needs, lay a sheet of tracing paper over the base map and site inventory and label it User Needs Analysis. You need to organize the space around your home into functional areas: public, private and service areas (Figure 10.16). The public area is generally in front of the Landscape Design 228

13 Table 10.2 User needs analysis checklist questions. Ask yourself: What do I need? Check Yes or No and add comments where appropriate. 1. Family activities Outdoor cooking or dining area Yes No Comments Areas for specific children s activities Swimming or wading area Private sitting area Work area Laundry drying area Optional area for a specific sport 2. Entertaining General type Usual number of guests Parking capacity 3. Gardening Flower beds Vegetable garden Compost bin Greenhouse Herb garden Fruit trees or vines Water garden, pond or fountain 4. Animals Pets (number and type) Any housing or special fencing needed for pets Interest in birds, butterflies or other wildlife Bird houses, feeders or baths Plants with berries, seeds or nectar for birds and butterflies 5. Maintenance Is the care of your garden of interest to you? Would you prefer to minimize maintenance? Do you have specific watering plans? Are there existing natural areas that could be preserved and protected as no maintenance areas for wildlife habitat? 6. Storage Do you need to store: Trailers? Boats? Garden Equipment? Toys? Cooking equipment? Outdoor furniture? Credit: M. T. Haque et al., Clemson University. Landscape Design 229

14 house, which is in public view. The front door is normally the focal point. The private area serves as a place to relax, entertain and play. It may contain a patio, deck, or porch. A play area may be incorporated for households with children. Think of this area as an extension of the inside of your home. Consider access to this area as you enter and leave your home. The service area is used for work as well as for storage. The garage is usually considered a part of this area. As you define this area, consider function and convenience. These three functional areas should be related to each other, similar to the way the rooms in a house are related to one another. The areas are separated to some extent by plants or other physical boundaries, similar to the way the rooms of a house are separated by walls. Allow for movement between these areas such as a lawn or walkway, similar to interior doors and hallways. Like a wall-to-wall carpet in your home, tie the areas together with mulch, ground covers, or lawn. Design Phase Step 3. Transform your user needs checklist into graphic form to create a functional diagram. Place a sheet of tracing paper over your maps and create functional diagrams to create relationships between the various use areas. As you consider the outdoor space, try to imagine this outdoor living space as an extension of your home. Use bubbles or loose circles to organize the planning space into functional areas (Figure 10.17). A bubble diagram functions like an outline for a story; it gives you a big picture look as to how you want to use the landscape space. Rough in the approximate locations and space requirements of the various activities that you plan to use on your property. Go back to your user needs checklist to make sure you ve included all of the activities. Try to achieve logical placement of the bubbles in relation to each other and in relation to your home (Figure 10.17). Relate outdoor functions as closely as possible to indoor functions. Store firewood near the fireplace; place an outdoor dining area close to the kitchen; locate the children s play area within view of the kitchen window and close to a mud room or secondary entry. Place trees and shrubs in strategic locations to provide privacy in the landscape and in the home while also allowing you to enjoy them from inside. Figure To organize your thoughts about how you want to use the outdoor space, divide your property into three functional areas. A Room With a View Envision your property as a large interior space with a floor, ceiling, walls and partitions. The floor of your landscape is lawn, ground covers, or paving. Changes in the level of the floor, such as slopes, steps and ramps, add interest and create the illusion of separation similar to an interior wall. The walls and partitions in your outdoor space are fences, walls, hedges and screens. The ceiling could be trees, pergolas, arbors and the sky. Furnishings are benches, lights, sculpture and other living and nonliving elements. As a designer, your goal is to create a room or series of rooms similar to how you would create the interior space of your home. Think about how these rooms will be used and how you want to furnish them. Planning the outside space demands as much care and attention as designing the interior space of your home. Landscape Design 230

15 Figure Examples of bubble diagrams identifying various features and activities on the property. Credit: A. Niedenthal, Purdue University Extension Service. Landscape Design 231

16 Use symbols that clearly convey information about the plants without obscuring other details of the design. For example, symbols for trees should be relatively transparent, allowing the reader to see what is proposed for the space beneath the tree s canopy. In contrast, groundcover symbols can be quite dense. There should be easily recognized graphic differences between deciduous and coniferous materials. To help simplify this procedure, it is standard practice to divide the plant materials into three main categories: canopy, shrub and groundcover. Further differentiation is achieved by the use of varying graphic symbols. Canopies Shrubs Groundcovers To enhance the indoor-outdoor relationship, use half landscape-half building elements, such as trellis structures, decks and fences, which offer visual interest and function. Use several sheets of tracing paper taped over the base map and site inventory and brainstorm several comparison sketches (Figure 10.18). Evaluate each activity location in relation to what already exists on the site. Also, estimate the amount of available space relative to the number of items you want to include in your design. You may have to prioritize your user needs list and only accommodate your most desirable items and features. Since your base map is drawn to scale, you can accurately determine the amount of square feet required for each item as you attempt to fit them into your design. To fine-tune your design, place a sheet of tracing paper over your bubble diagram and draw paths that people will follow in order to go from one functional area to another (Figure 10.19). Consider movement into and out of your home and other structures. Use thick lines for heavily travelled routes and thin lines for minor circulation routes. The routes you reveal will help you decide where paths, sidewalks, or other paved surfaces need to be constructed. These designs require little effort and can be discarded easily. Ultimately, it will guide you to the right design. Make sure the sketches are drawn to scale and fit within your property lines. You may be able to take the best ideas from each of your alternatives and combine them to make the final design. Also, consider creating a xeriscape plan that divides the landscape into three water-use zones called hydrozones : high (regular watering); moderate Landscape Design 232

17 Figure Create a variety of designs for the functional areas in your landscape. Evaluate and modify them until you find the right one that makes the best use of your site. Credit: A. Niedenthal, Purdue University Extension. Landscape Design 233

18 Figure Circulation diagram shows movement in the landscape. Draw it on tracing paper laid on top of your site analysis and functional area (bubble) diagrams. Credit: A. Niedenthal, Purdue University Extension. Landscape Design 234

19 (occasional watering); low (natural rainfall) (see Figure and Design for Low Maintenance on p. 245). Step 4: Develop the Preliminary Landscape Plan. Your design is finally taking shape. Decide on an overall theme that will be noticed in the basic forms you use in your landscape and can be repeated throughout the design composition. Choose a theme that is in harmony with the character of your home and property. As illustrated earlier, some potential themes could be angular, naturalistic, curvilinear, or linear. To select an overall theme, determine the character of your home and lot. A wooded, sloped site has a naturalistic character. You can reflect this in the house and the landscape design. A home with dynamic angles lends itself to an angular theme. A home located on a rectangular lot is easily suited for a linear or rectilinear theme. Design within the parameters created by straight lines drawn parallel or perpendicular to the house. To help you visualize a linear theme, work from the plan view of your home and extend lines from your home and property (Figure 10.1). Draw straight lines beyond the end of each wall and the edge of each window, door, sidewalk, porch or patio. Draw the lines on tracing paper overlaid on grid paper to help you identify patterns. Place your tracing on top of the bubble diagrams you created earlier to see if there were lines that you can select that will accommodate the functional areas and separate them as you want. If these extended lines repeat the architectural lines of your home and the property boundaries, you will create a natural blend of basic forms that will establish your theme. Experiment with several themes until you find one that you re comfortable with that fits. Now is the time to make changes and to make discoveries. Now give form and definition to the various areas in your landscape. Using another sheet of tracing paper, lay it on your base plan and functional area sheet and roughly sketch out a functional concept diagram (Figure 10.21). This is not a plan, but it enables you to give more definitive shapes to the elements. The challenge is to think in three dimensions as you design from a plan view. When designing the space, be mindful of eye-level views. Begin this step by adding in driveways, parking Figure Sketch of proposed water-use zones on a property. Credit: G. L. Wade, University of Ga. Coop. Ext. Serv. areas, walks, patios and other paved surfaces. Then define the planting spaces, bed lines (the line separating the lawn from the landscape beds) and ground covers. Planting beds should have either straight or gradually curving lines for ease of maintenance and to make them useful to easily direct the eye. Create smooth bed lines and avoid unattractive sudden dips and jags. Orient the bed lines at a 90-degree angle where they meet a sidewalk or structure, to give a sense of completion to the bed line. Indicate where plant masses are needed for separating areas, screening undesirable views and providing shade, windbreaks and beauty. At this point, do not attempt to name the trees and shrubs. Think in terms of plant masses that will serve a purpose and help tie the various areas together into a unified plan that contains the elements of good design. Consider the bones of the garden the basic Landscape Design 235

20 Figure A functional concept diagram is the brainstorming stage that leads to the landscape design plan. Credit: J. F. Collins and M. I. Adleman, Cornell Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv. structural or skeletal elements of a garden or site. The bones are features, such as structures, paths, fences and visually dominant plants that are most apparent during the dormant season. Use pools, stone steps, paving, walls, bird feeders and other architectural features to add interest to the garden. Architectural details do not change with the seasons, and they give interest and mean- ing to the garden throughout the year. This brainstorming will result in many sketches. Eventually you ll create the right design. Step 5. Develop the final landscape design plan. In this last step add details to the concept plan. Use landscape symbols to indicate trees and shrub masses (Figure 10.22). Use a circle template to draw the various mature sizes of plants to scale. Refer to the Site Analysis Landscape Design 236

21 Designing Foundation Plantings At one time, foundation plantings were mainly used to hide the bases of older houses. It is no longer considered necessary or desirable to plant a line of shrubs all the way across the foundation. Plantings at the front of a house are used to complement the home appearance, to blend it into the surroundings and to create an inviting entrance. Many designers now like to refer to the area in front of the house as the entry garden to emphasize that the purpose of this area is to complement, not camouflage, the house. The entry garden can incorporate any of the areas that are in the public view. PARTS OF A FOUNDATION PLANTING The foundation planting is a combination of the entrance planting, the corner planting and a transition area that joins them. Other areas such as the walk, lawn, borders and drive are also incorporated in the entrance garden. As a unit, these plantings should lead the eye toward the front door and welcome the visitor. Foundation plantings, like corner plantings, help anchor the house to the ground. The foundation planting should also direct the eye of the viewer to the entrance. Generally, taller plants are placed on, or beyond, the corners with height of plants descending toward the entrance. You do not have to place plants all the way across the foundation. The main idea is to anchor and direct, not camouflage. Do not place dense shrubs near the building foundation, because they can block foundation vents that were installed to allow good air circulation beneath the floor of the structure. Thus, plant varieties and placement should be planned to provide free air flow through vents and around foundations and siding of a house. Entrance Planting: Plants used to identify the entry to the house are called entrance plantings. The area nearest the entrance door, which is the focal point that defines an important place in the view, should have a welcoming feel. Groupings of plants should be used in such a way to clearly invite the viewer to the designated place of entry. Plants for this area should be interesting and attractive throughout the year. Corner Planting: Corner plantings are used to visually tie the house into the natural surroundings. This is done by concealing the inverted T formed where the vertical wall line meets the horizontal ground line (see figure below). For some homes, only one plant is needed to serve this purpose. Small trees can be incorporated into the Horizontal Ground Line Vertical building line Circle denotes critical area - the inverted T Conceal the inverted T corner planting by widening the planting bed or by including them visually. Plant the tree so that it overlaps the house edge from most angles. Tall upright plants at the corners emphasize the vertical end of the house and can look very stiff and awkward. For very tall buildings or homes, a group of several upright plants along with smaller plants may provide height without an overpowering, single vertical accent. The top of the corner plantings should reach a point about halfway to two-thirds between the ground and the roof line. If a straight line were drawn from such a point to the center of the front doorsill, we could quickly find the ideal height of the plants next to the door. They should never go much above this imaginary line at any time (see figure on following page). Corner plantings are groups of plants used to tie down the corners of the house. Corner plantings blend the vertical line of the wall with the horizontal plane of the ground. The corner planting should not grow higher than two-thirds of the height of the eaves, although this is not a hard and fast rule and creativity can be the overriding consideration. However, the corner planting should involve a sequence of lower-to-higher or higher-to-lower plants. Transition Planting: Transitional plantings should generally be simple and low. Many houses that are small or have attractive architecture do not need plantings between the entrance planting and the corner planting. A bed of groundcover or mulch may be all that is Landscape Design 237

22 necessary to tie the entrance planting and corner plantings together and make maintenance and mowing easier. However, long open spaces may need low plants to fill the expanse. Walks: Entrance walks should be located to provide adequate plant spacing and direct access from the driveway. Ideally, entrance walks should be at least 4 1 / 2 feet wide to allow two people to walk comfortably side by side. Consider making a broader paving area just before entering the house. Walkways should be of an attractive material that complements the house. Avoid using surfaces such as wood or slate that become slick when wet. Plants bordering walks and porches must be selected to avoid obstructing the path or snagging clothes as they grow. Entrance walks should usually be straight rather than curved. A curving path looks good only if there is a clear reason for the curve: around a boulder or tree, around a shrub or perennial bed. Lawns: The shape of the lawn itself is an important part of the entrance garden. The lines formed by the juncture of the entry garden and lawn should be designed for a pleasing shape, whether straight or curved. If curves are used, they should be gentle and sweeping. Excessive curves give a busy look and are difficult to mow around. In front yards that are very small or heavily shaded, it may be desirable to plant a ground cover instead of lawn. DESIGN ELEMENTS Line: The contour of a line creates a sense of direction as well as a sense of movement. The eye follows garden lines such as edges of a walk or the curve of a flowerbed. The character of a line creates a mood. Gentle, slow curves and horizontal lines are seen as restful while jagged diagonals or vertical lines create excitement and tension. Form: Shapes defined by lines are the most readily seen aspects of a landscape. Plant shapes divide and define the spaces in the garden. Some forms are more dramatic than others and attract attention. The form of the plants selected and their placement are critical to creating comfortable spaces. Structure: Evergreens and plants with strong winter forms are used to give basic year-round structure to the foundation planting. Determining the height of a corner planting using the funnel principle. To determine the approximate height of the planting for each side of the doorway, make an elevation drawing of your house. From a point at the corner one-half to two-thirds the distance from the ground to the eave, draw a line to the center of the door s threshold. The distance from the ground to this line, as measured 3 to 5 ft. from each side of the door or porch, will give you height that the plant should be to balance the asymmetrical design. (A) Although this house has almost true balance, it is slightly asymmetrical. For this reason, the plant on the right is slightly taller than the one on the left. (B) With this door location, the taller plant should be located to the left of the door and a low-spreading evergreen should be located to the right. (C) When the door is close to a projecting wing, measure the guide line from the corner of the wing closest to the door. (D) When the door is very close to the corner of the house, the doorway planting and corner planting should be combined. Structural plantings and hardscaping (paving and walls) are the equivalent of floors, ceilings and walls in outdoor rooms. Texture: Consider texture carefully when selecting plants for a foundation. Rough, coarse textures are informal and visually dominant, while fine, smooth textures have a more formal, elegant feeling. Coarse-leaved plants, such as leatherleaf mahonia or Japanese fatsia, offer a Landscape Design 238

23 dramatic textural effect against rugged stone. A fine textured plant such as boxwood may look better with a more refined material such as a smooth brick. Use more than just one type of texture to avoid lack of interest. Color: The colors of stone, brick and paint determine what colors of leaf and flower will complement a house. Repeat some of the house colors in the plantings to create unity, and use contrasting colors where accent is desired. Entry gardens are usually most effective when the color scheme is kept simple and predominantly green. Use plants with brightly colored leaves only in limited quantity for emphasis. DESIGN PRINCIPLES Simplicity: Simple designs are both easier to care for and often more visually pleasing. Limit the number of different paving and structural materials, types of plants and colors in a landscape to get maximum impact from each. There should only be one striking specimen plant in most foundation plantings. More will overwhelm and confuse rather than attract attention. Variety: While simplicity is essential to good design, there should still be enough variation in form, texture and color to create interest. Balance: Use symmetrical balance for a formal landscape. Asymmetrical balance is good for an informal look, which uses unequal sizes and numbers of plants and other elements in equilibrium. If the front of your home has asymmetrical balance, do not use the same plant on either side of the doorway. Unity: Repeating plants, building materials and forms ties a garden together. Using plants that are harmonious in form, texture and color creates unity. Emphasis: Contrast of color, size, form or texture is used to focus attention on important elements of a landscape such as an entrance. Specimen or accent plants that provide strong interest throughout the seasons create emphasis. A specimen plant is one used for unique beauty or as an outstanding example of its type. It should have a position of importance and have seasonal interest. By drawing attention to itself, it draws attention to the entrance. Only one specimen plant of unusual character should be used in the front landscape. Style: Adapt the foundation plantings to the style of the home. Informal plantings are suited to traditional, country and contemporary settings, while sheared evergreens look best with more formal styles. Some housing types have particular landscape styles associated with them. The Charleston walled garden is a classic example. While it is not necessary to be rigorously tied to a particular style, landscaping in the public area should combine well with the rest of the neighborhood and natural surroundings. Scale: The relative size of one part of a landscape to another and to the house and its surroundings is essential for good scale. Small and one-story houses will generally need smaller plantings than large, two-story structures. Avoid a congested and overgrown look by using plants that are in proper scale with the house. DRAINAGE AND MOISTURE CONTROL In South Carolina s humid climate, landscaping should be designed to limit moisture near the house that can lead to structural damage. Watering plants near a house foundation (within 3 to 5 ft.) can cause moisture problems. Use drought-tolerant plantings near the house so that supplemental watering can be avoided in this area. Avoid planting under the eaves or roof overhang. Drier soil cuts down on mildew problems and moisture damage and discourages insect pests like termites and roaches. Make sure that the ground close to the house is graded to channel water away from the house. Ground covers and organic mulches should be kept at least 12 inches away from the house s foundation in order to avoid giving a bridge to termites. This area can be filled with crushed gravel or stone. Do not place dense shrubs near the building foundation, because they can block foundation vents which were installed to allow good air circulation beneath the floor of the structure to help prevent wood decay in the crawl space. Shrubs of more than 6 ft. tall at maturity ideally should be located so that their foliage will be at least 5 ft. away from the walls (see figure on p. 240). Shorter shrubs should have at least a 3-foot clearance between them and the house. This prevents waterlogging of soils near the foundation and allows for adequate air Landscape Design 239

24 circulation for house foundation vents and helps prevent mildew. Allow adequate spacing between plants also, to prevent later crowding and excess pruning. PLANT CHOICES There are many things to consider when choosing plants for your landscape. You should know the characteristics of the plant such as mature size and shape and whether it is evergreen or deciduous. Select plants that are pest-resistant; hardy and heat-tolerant for your area; and adapted for the sun, soil and moisture conditions in your yard. See Chapter 15. Make sure that plants for the area within 5 to 10 ft. of the foundation are drought-tolerant. It is better to figure out the attributes that you will need in an area and select plants that meet those conditions, rather than pick plants and then try to find a place for them. Trees: Trees frame the house and provide background. Large trees should be farther from the house than small trees. Check the mature width of the tree to ensure that its branches will not rub against the house at maturity. Do not block the front view of the house. Small ornamental trees can be located near a corner or as an accent in the area near a door. Good choices are dogwood, redbud, Japanese maple, crapemyrtle, star magnolia and sourwood. Tree-form evergreen shrubs such as waxmyrtle, Burford holly, or cherry laurel can also be used in small areas. Shrubs: Evergreen shrubs have always been the mainstays of foundation plantings. Shrubs that lose their leaves can be incorporated into an entry garden if they provide year round interest from striking form, bark or berries. Shrubs should generally be low and moderate in growth rate to reduce maintenance needs. Ground Covers: Ground covers can be used extensively in foundation plantings and are flattering to most Southern house styles. A continuous planting of one kind of ground cover can tie plantings together, creating unity among groups of shrubs or among trees and shrubs. Ground covers can be used to provide a natural and attractive edging for the lawn. Perennials and Annuals: Herbaceous plants can provide seasonal interest and colorful accents. It is important to choose perennials that look good both in and out of bloom. Foliage perennials such as hostas are excellent choices for foundation plantings. Annuals should be chosen for long bloom and ease of care. Make sure that these plants receive regular maintenance. A small space used for flowers should usually contain only one type or color to assure visual harmony.--adapted from Foundation Plantings, K. Russ and B. Polomski, HGIC Medium and tall shrubs are located at a proper distance away from the wall of the structure. Reprinted from Big Ten Checklist, Linda L. Redmann. Landscape Design 240

25 and Needs Analysis overlays to place them in appropriate spots where they can be expected to thrive. Draw the symbols to scale to represent the actual amount of space that will be involved. For example, a Nellie R. Stevens holly (Ilex x Nellie R. Stevens ) at maturity will have a spread of about 20 ft. Make the scale diameter of the symbol in this case 20 ft. Start with a structural framework of trees and shrubs, and then follow it with placement of your herbaceous plants on the drawing. In developing your final plan, check to see if the proposed scheme is practical and if you can answer the following questions satisfactorily: Will the view be attractive from the living room? The picture window? The porch? The dining room? Has a living area been provided and is it screened from neighbors? Do all the parts fit together into a unified plan? Have a good setting, background and privacy been provided? The good design plan embodies careful site analysis and your needs and relates to the site conditions. (Figures ). Landscape designers and Figure Landscaping symbols. Deciduous Tree Clipped (Formal) Hedge Flower Border landscape architects may create several plans that include a master plan, grading plan and a detailed planting plan (Figure 10.27). This plan indicates the location and mature spread of established plants. Often, the planting plan is coordinated with the layout and grading plans to avoid any problems with grading or above- and below-ground utilities. Notes are sometimes included which specify any special soil preparation, thinning, or pruning of existing plants. Although individual needs for landscaping are different, the steps outlined in this chapter should help you develop a landscape design that is truly Deciduous Shurb Informal Hedge Walks Opening of Decisuous Shrubs Fences Evergreen( Tree or Shrub) Buildings Grouping of Evergreens Each symbol represents a physical feature and is used as a graphic representation of this feature on the base plan. These symbols (especially plants, structures, walks, and drives) should be drawn to scale on the plan. Show the mature size for plants. For example, the symbol for a deciduous shrub should represent its mature spread. Letters such as those for the flower border are often used a as key for a flower-planting plan. North Drive Slope Wind View Concrete Brick Flagstone your own. At the very least, it will help you communicate your ideas to a landscape designer or landscape architect (see box p. 227). Ultimately, your landscape design should reflect your needs and the character of your site. Landscape Design 241

26 Figure Select the most suitable elements from your conceptual designs to complete the landscape plan. Figure A landscape design plan results from a detailed examination of your site conditions and careful consideration of your wants and needs. This plan incorporates a rectilinear design theme. Right angles separate lawn, paved areas, and planting beds. Credit: R. R. Rothenberger, University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Service. Credit: A. Niedenthal, Purdue University Extension Service. Figure A landscape design plan that incorporate xeriscape principles. Credit: G. L. Wade, University of Ga. Coop. Ext. Serv. Landscape Design 242

27 Figure Planting plan for a sustainable landscape. Energy conservation, water conservation, low maintenance, and wildlife habitat make this a sustainable landscape design. Credit: M. T. Haque et al., Clemson University. Landscape Design 243

28 Figure An example of a planting plan that indicates the location and approximate mature spread of established plants in the landscape. Credit: J. F. Collins and M. I. Adleman, Cornell Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv. Landscape Design 244

29 DESIGN FOR LOW MAINTENANCE When evaluating the user needs of a landscape, consider the maintenance. Many prefer a low maintenance plan, which not only saves time and money, but also conserves water and energy. Low maintenance may be achieved by adopting one or more of the following approaches: Simplicity: Keep the planting design simple. Simple plantings, using only a few plant species, can be attractive and easy to manage. Materials Selection: Some elements of a landscape need more care than others. Generally, paving such as patios and walks require the least care. They are followed by structures such as sheds and arbors, then trees, shrubs, ground covers and lawns. Bulbs, annual and perennial flowers and plants that need special care such as roses need the most maintenance. Since few of us would want a garden without any seasonal flowering plants, the maintenance impact can be reduced by planting high-care plants in limited numbers and where they will have the most impact. Beds: Planting beds are easier to maintain than many isolated plantings. It is easier to mow around a bed with a continuous edge rather than around individual plants. Gentle curves or straight lines are both easier to care for and more pleasing than complicated curves and shapes. Avoid sharp corners or narrow strips that mowers cannot reach. Edging: Edging saves maintenance by keeping mulch in and lawn out. Steel, aluminum and plastic edgings are readily available. A very attractive edging can be constructed of pavers or brick laid flush with the lawn. This kind of edging will reduce the need for hand trimming. While a spade cut edging will need to be recut seasonally, it will keep bed edges defined and neat. Hardscaping: Nonplant features, such as patios and decks, are low-maintenance choices for high traffic areas that will not allow the successful growth of grass or other ground cover. Sidewalks, patios and edging around beds should be low and flat, permitting a power mower to ride up over the surface and eliminating the need for hand-edging. When considering various landscape and construction materials, compare the initial cost and maintenance to long term-cost and durability. Natural Areas: Some areas, especially on properties with large trees, can be allowed to return to their natural state. This option will require periodic care to remove undesirable weed species. Wildflower meadows require little supplemental irrigation once established and generally do not require fertilization. They are an attractive alternative to the traditional lawn because they need to be mowed only once a year. Xeriscaping: Xeriscape, which means dry landscape, combines sound horticultural principles to conserve water while maintaining a beautiful landscape. Xeriscaping incorporates the following seven basic principles: 1. Careful planning and design to divide the landscape into groups of plants with similar watering needs called hydrozones areas within a design that receive either low, moderate or high amounts of water (Figure 10.20). Generally, hydrozones are divided into three categories: those that require regular irrigation (high-moisture zones), those that need irrigation only during long dry spells (moderatemoisture zones), and those that rarely or never require irrigation except in times of severe drought (low-moisture zones). 2. Reduce lawn areas to functional spaces and grow drought-tolerant lawn grasses. 3. Prepare the soil well by using organic matter, such as compost, to improve soil structure. 4. Select appropriate plants and group them by their watering needs. They include droughttolerant plants that can cope with extended periods of dry weather after they ve become established. A xeriscape also has room for high water use annuals that need water to keep them blooming. All the plants within a zone should have the same water requirements, so they can be watered as a group. 5. Efficient watering methods, such as drip and microsprinkler systems, which help conserve water. 6. Mulch the soil around trees, shrubs and flower beds to conserve moisture, suppress weeds and enhance plant growth. 7. Properly fertilize, prune, mow and water the plants in your landscape to keep them healthy. Research indicates that incorporating these principles into the landscape reduces water consumption by 30 to 60 percent or more.-- Adapted from Low Maintenance Landscape Ideas, K. Russ and B. Polomski, HGIC 1703 (hgic. clemson.edu). Landscape Design 245

30 Selecting Plants for the Landscape Design When using plants, referred to as plant materials in horticultural circles, you need to know how they can be used. Woody ornamental plants fall into four main groups: trees, shrubs, vines and ground covers. Trees produce one main trunk and a more or less distinct and elevated head; they attain a height of 15 ft. or more. Shrubs remain quite low and produce shoots or stems from the base and usually not a single trunk; they reach a height of 15 ft. or less. Vines grow horizontally over the ground or climb by twining or attaching appendages to a support. They may be annual or perennial, woody or herbaceous, evergreen or deciduous. Vines are often grown for their flowers, since many have longer and more frequent blooming cycles than other plant forms. Other vines are grown primarily for their fruit or foliage. Ground covers are vigorous, low-growing, ground-hugging plants that act like living mulches with their dense mat of stems and leaves. They range in height from just a few inches to knee-high. As expected, this catchall category of landscape plants includes shrubs, vines, perennials, ferns, ornamental grasses and sedges and bamboos. They can be herbaceous or woody, or have succulent or grassy leaves. Some ground covers are only cultivated for their spectacular leaves, while others have the added bonus of eye-catching flowers. Because there are so many woody plants available for use in landscaping, select plants carefully. Their selection should be based on their aesthetic contributions, intended use and cultural considerations. Aesthetic Contributions Form Form or shape is the first design quality of plants that you should consider (Figure 10.28). Each shape has its own place in a landscape design. For example, shrubs are usually upright, round, spreading, or columnar. Deciduous trees are round, weeping, oval, vase-like, erect or columnar, and pyramidal. Evergreens are columnar, narrow pyramidal, broad pyramidal, round, spreading, or creeping. These basic forms range through all degrees of symmetry and irregularity. The more extreme the form, the greater the attraction to the viewer. The form includes the outline of a plant as well as its three-dimensional mass. Form is determined by the line, direction and arrangement of branches and twigs. The resulting mass influences the scale of the plant and the space in which it is located. For example, weeping and pendulous forms lead the eye back to the ground; ascending and vertical forms lead the eye upward, giving a feeling of height and narrowness to the space. The ascending form provides accent, so use it sparingly. Horizontal and spreading forms emphasize the lateral extent and breadth of the space. These are comfortable forms because their direction corresponds with the normal direction of eye movement. Most plants have rounded forms that allow for easy eye movement and provide a pleasant undulating effect that lends itself to group and mass compositions. Repeat the basic plant forms of herbaceous perennials, shrubs and trees to develop harmonious Figure Plant forms. Irregular Prostrate Mound or spreading Oval Pyramidal Round Columnar Rounded V-shaped Landscape Design 246

31 plant compositions. The striking accent of conical-, pyramidal- and columnarshaped plants, which makes them stand out from the rest of the design, can be tempered by combining them with more neutral round or spreading forms. Flat or rounded ground forms often create an interesting picture by adding conical or pyramidal evergreens with the dominant round types of plants. Avoid using all plants of a single form, which results in a boring monotonous design. Different shapes provide variety and interest by accenting the major type with other forms. Figure Texture is... Fine Coarse Heavy Thin Dense Light and Shade Texture results from... Glossy surface Light Texture Texture is the second design quality in planting compositions. Basically, texture is a plant s Length of petiole qualities of coarseness or fineness, roughness or smoothness, heaviness or lightness, thinness or denseness (Figure 10.29). Plants that are large when seen close up become smaller with distance and may blend together or disappear at long range. Use variations of texture to create contrast and a play of light and shadow, but avoid extremes. Never put the coarsest plant next to the finest one. Avoid putting coarse textures in small areas they will appear harsh and cut down on apparent space. Change textures in a graduated pattern. Move by steps from the plants with the coarsest texture in the composition to those with the finest texture. The leaf size of each plant should be about one-half the leaf size of the plant that precedes it. As you move to plants of finer texture, use proportionately larger numbers. For example, you might move from one extremely coarse plant to three plants with one-half the leaf size of the first plant; then to seven plants with the next finest texture; and finally to 11 plants with the finest texture. Unless your area is extremely large, keep texture changes simple and gradual and avoid too much contrast. Plantings should allow the viewer s eye to move smoothly from the coarsest to the finest textures. White underside Size of twig Size of leaf Entire or cut leaf Spacing between leaves Color Color is the design quality of plants that has the greatest appeal and evokes the greatest response. However, this does not mean that a design should be developed exclusively on the basis of color. Each color has three dimensions: hue, value and intensity. Hue is the name of the color, and it also indicates the warmth or coolness of the color. Value or brightness refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. In other words, value is the amount of light reflected a large amount reflected will be a high value, and a small amount reflected will be a low value. Since yellow is usually lighter than blue or green, it usually has a higher value than the other two colors. Chroma is the third dimension of color. It indicates the amount of color content its purity, color-strength and saturation, as determined by the quantity of the dominant hue. For example, pink or maroon have smaller chroma than pure red. These Landscape Design 247

32 Figure Color wheel. three dimensions are so intricately related that it is difficult in practice to vary one of them without the other two changing at the same time. The pure colors of the light spectrum can be arranged in a color wheel by placing each color next to its most similar neighbor (Figure 10.30). Starting at the top of the wheel and proceeding clockwise, the colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. The mixing of any of these hues produces intermediate colors such as yellow-green, blue-green, gray-green and black-green. This color wheel arrangement allows us to group colors into warm and cool colors. The warm colors are yellow, orange and red; the cool colors are green, blue and violet. The warm colors are conspicuous, cheerful and stimulating. They tend to come toward us or advance, while cool colors recede and suggest distance. Cool colors are usually inconspicuous and restful. Colors on the wheel are grouped according to their relationship to one another. Those directly opposite each other are called complementary colors; those adjacent to each other are called analogous. Complementary colors are always a combination of a warm color and a cool color. They offer a strong contrast by bringing out the differences between the two hues. Since analogous colors are closely related, there is a greater mixing into intermediate hues, and the resulting combinations are pleasing and balanced. A harmonious color design is most easily obtained by providing a dominance of one color. Colors of all parts of the composition must be considered, including plant materials and their changes, as well as structures and pavements. You must decide which elements will be dominant and which will be subordinate in the landscape. If each element has equal importance, the result is visual chaos. Conversely, if every element is subordinate, the result is monotony. It is the planned contrast between the two extremes that gives a spark or pop. The main purpose of plants in a garden is to provide a leafy, green setting that gives the garden an atmosphere of peace and restfulness. This background is more important than a shrub s flowers. Flowers are interesting for only a short time, but the tree and shrub foliage dominate the garden scene for the entire growing season. The greatest ornamental value of some deciduous trees and shrubs is the color of their leaves in the fall; others are interesting because of their many shades of green. Some ornamental trees and shrubs also have purple or yellow leaf colors in summer to contrast with the usual green. Foliage color must harmonize with the colors of existing or proposed buildings. The wrong choice can result in color clashes. Some plants, such as Sango Kaku Japanese maple and Heritage river birch, have color in the bark and twigs. You can often get a harmonious blend of plant and background colors by placing them in front of an evergreen background. The foliage contrasts strikingly in the summer, and the colored bark against the deep green evergreen foliage is attractive in the winter. Landscape Uses Trees and Shrubs Trees are used for shade, screening, windbreaks, ornamentals and sound-reducing purposes. Shrubs are used for screens, barriers, windbreaks, ornamentals, ground covers and wildlife shelters. Both trees and shrubs can be selected to provide edible fruit or nuts. Providing shade usually requires tall, sturdy, long-lived species. Density of foliage, which determines the amount of shading, is important. A flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) will produce a very dense shade that prevents other plants from Landscape Design 248