Explosion Protection Engineering Principles

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1 Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles for Oil, Gas, Chemical and Related Facilities Second edition Dennis P. Nolan ELSEVIER AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier G

2 Preface About the Author v vii 1 Introduction Fire, Explosions, and Environmental Pollution Historical Background Legal Influences Hazards and Their Prevention Risk Management and Insurance Senior Management Responsibility and Accountability 10 Bibliography 11 2 Overview of Oil and Gas Facilities Introduction Exploration Production Enhanced Oil Recovery Transportation Refining Typical Refinery Process Flow Marketing 21 Bibliography 21 3 Philosophy of Protection Principles Introduction Legal Obligations Insurance Recommendations Company and Industry Standards Worst Case Condition Independent Layers of Protection Design Principles Accountability and Auditability 32 4 Physical Properties of Hydrocarbons Introduction General Description of Hydrocarbons Characteristics of Hydrocarbons 35

3 X 4.4 Flash Point Autoignition Temperature Vapor Density Ratio Vapor Pressure Specific Gravity Flammable Combustible Heat of Combustion Some Common Hydrocarbons 41 Bibliography 47 5 Characteristics of Hydrocarbon Releases, Fires, and Explosions Introduction Hydrocarbon Releases Gaseous Releases Mists or Spray Releases Liquid Releases Nature and Chemistry of Hydrocarbon Combustion Hydrocarbon Fires Deliberate Terrorist Explosions Semi-Confined Explosion Overpressures Vapor Cloud Overpressures Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions Smoke and Combustion Gases Mathematical Consequence Modeling Methods of Extinguishing Flames Incident Scenario Development Terminology of Hydrocarbon Explosions and Fires 68 Bibliography 69 6 Historical Survey of Fire and Explosions in the Hydrocarbon Industries Introduction Lack of Industry Incident Database and Analysis Insurance Industry Perspective Process Industry Perspective Major Incidents Affect Process Industry Safety Management Incident Data Summary 81 Bibliography 82 7 Risk Analysis Introduction Risk Identification and Evaluation Specialized Supplemental Studies Risk Acceptance Criteria 88

4 Tanks 7.5 Relevant and Accurate Data Resources Insurance Risk Evaluations 89 Bibliography 90 8 Segregation, Separation, and Arrangement Introduction Segregation Separation Manned Facilities and Locations Process Units Storage Facilities Flares and Burn Pits Critical Utilities and Support Systems Arrangement Plant Roads Truck Routes, Crane Access, and Emergency Response 100 Bibliography Grading, Containment, and Drainage Systems Introduction Drainage Systems Process and Area Drainage Surface Drainage Open Channels and Trenches Spill Containment 107 Bibliography Process Controls Introduction Human Observation Electronic Process Control Instrumentation, Automation, and Alarm Management System Reliability Transfer and Storage Controls Burner Management Systems 117 Bibliography Emergency Shutdown Introduction Definition and Objective Design Philosophy Activation Mechanism Levels of Shutdown Reliability and Fail Safe Logic Esd/Dcs Interfaces Activation Points 123

5 XII 11.9 Activation Hardware Features Isolation Valve Requirements Emergency Isolation Valves Subsea Isolation Valves Protection Requirements System Interactions 126 Bibliography Depressurization, Blowdown, and Venting Introduction Objective of Depressuring Blowdown Venting Flares and Burn Pits 135 Bibliography Overpressure and Thermal Relief Introduction Causes of Overpressure Pressure Relief Valves Thermal Relief Solar Heat Pressure Relief Device Locations 143 Bibliography Control of Ignition Sources Introduction Open Flames, Hot Work, Cutting, and Welding Electrical Arrangements Electrical Area Classification Electrical Area Classification Divisions and Groups Surface Temperature Limits Classified Locations and Release Sources Protection Measures Smoking Static Lightning Internal Combustion Engines Hot Surface Ignition Pyrophoric Materials Spark Arrestors Hand Tools Mobile Telephones, Laptops, and Portable Electronic Field Devices 154 Bibliography 154

6 15 Elimination of Process Releases Introduction Inventory Reduction Vents and Relief Valves Sample Points Drainage Systems Storage Facilities Pump Seals Vibration Stress Failure of Piping Rotating Equipment 160 Bibliography Fire and Explosion-Resistant Systems Introduction Explosions Definition of Explosion Potentials Explosion Protection Design Arrangements Vapor Dispersion Enhancements Damage-Limiting Construction Fireproofing Radiation Shields Water Cooling Sprays Vapor Dispersion Water Sprays Locations Requiring Consideration of Fire-Resistant Measures Flame Resistance Fire Dampers Smoke Dampers Flame and Spark Arrestors Piping Detonation Arrestors 178 Bibliography Fire and Gas Detection and Alarm Systems Introduction Fire and Smoke Detection Methods Smoke Detectors Thermal or Heat Detectors Gas Detectors Application Catalytic Point Gas Detector Infra-Red (IR) Beam Gas Detector Ultrasonic Area Gas Detector Alarm Setting Calibration Hazardous Area Classification Fire and Gas Detection Control Panels 198

7 xiv Graphic Annunciation Power Supplies Emergency Backup Power Time Delay Voting Logic Cross Zoning Executive Action Circuit Supervision Vibration Avoidance 200 Bibliography Evacuation Introduction Emergency Response Plan Alarms and Notification Evacuation Routes Emergency Doors, Stairs, Exits, and Escape Hatches Marking and Identification Shelter-in-Place Offshore Evacuation 206 Bibliography Methods of Fire Suppression Introduction Portable Fire Extinguishers Water Suppression Systems Water Supplies Fire Pumps Fire Pump Standards and Tests Firewater Distribution Systems Firewater Control and Isolation Valves Sprinkler Systems Water Deluge Systems Water Spray Systems Water Flooding Steam Smothering Water Curtains Blow Out Water Injection Systems Hydrants, Monitors, and Hose Reels Nozzles Foam Suppression Systems Manual Firefighting Utilization Gaseous Systems Chemical Systems 233

8 xv Dual Agent Systems 235 Bibliography Special Locations, Facilities, and Equipment Introduction Arctic Environments Desert Arid Environments Tropical Environments Earthquake Zones Offshore Facilities Pipelines Exploration Wellheads (Onshore and Offshore) Loading Facilities Electrical Equipment and Communications Rooms Oil Filled Transformers Battery Rooms Enclosed Turbines or Gas Compressor Packages Emergency Generators Heat Transfer Systems Cooling Towers Hydrocarbon Testing Laboratories (Including Oil or Water Testing and Darkrooms) Warehouses Cafeterias and Kitchens 254 Bibliography Human Factors and Ergonomic Considerations Introduction Human Attitude Control Room Consoles Field Devices Instructions, Markings, and Identification Colors and Identification Noise Control Panic Security Accommodation of Religious Practices 264 Bibliography 265 Appendices Appendix A: Testing Firewater Systems 267 A.l Testing of Firewater Pumping Systems 268 A.2 Testing of Firewater Distribution Systems 272 A.3 Testing of Sprinkler and Deluge Systems 276

9 xvi A.4 Testing of Foam Fire Suppression Systems 278 A.5 Testing of Firewater Hose Reels and Monitors 279 A. 6 Fire Protection Hydrostatic Testing Requirements 281 Appendix B: Reference Data 283 B. l Fire Resistance Testing Standards 284 B.2 Explosion and Fire Resistance Ratings 286 B.3 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Classifications 289 B.4 Hydraulic Data 295 B.5 Selected Conversion Factors 296 Acronym List 301 Glossary 304 Index 311

Contents. xiii. 4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS General Alkene Series... 28

Contents. xiii. 4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS General Alkene Series... 28 Contents 1. INTRODUCI'ION... 1 Historical Background... 2 Legal Influences... 4 Hazards and Their Prevention... 4 Systems Approach... 5 Fire Protection Engineering Role... 5 Risk Management and Insurance...