EARTH SCIENCE CONCEPTS -Geologic time scale

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1 EARTH SCIENCE CONCEPTS -Geologic time scale

2 -Plate Tectonics -Earthquakes *result of vibrations (often due to plate movement) deep in the Earth that release energy *often occur at transform boundaries -Volcanism *formed by material from Earth s interior *formed where tectonic plates meet *active vs. dormant

3 -Seasons -Solar Intensity and Latitude

4 -Earth s Composition THE ATMOSPHERE -Composition

5 -Structure -Weather and Climate *long-term (about 30 year span) weather *important characteristics: temperature & precipitation -Atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis Effect *Earth s surface is heated unevenly (water and land have different heat capacities). Sun s rays strike the equator directly all year long, but the rays heat the North and South Poles at an angle (See Solar Intensity and Latitude section above). Therefore, poles receive less sunlight and less intensity. *Earth is tilted on its axis; certain regions of its surface are closer to Sun at various times during the year. *Earth s rotation prevents air masses from moving directly north or south of the equator. The air masses get deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere (Coriolis Effect). -Atmosphere Ocean Interactions

6 -ENSO GLOBAL WATER RESOURCES AND USE -Freshwater/saltwater -Ocean circulation -Agricultural, Industrial, and Domestic Use -Surface and Groundwater Issues -Global Problems -Conservation SOIL AND SOIL DYNAMICS -Background/Extra Information: Soil is a thin layer on top of Earth s land surface. It is a natural resource that affects ecosystems. Soil holds nutrients and water for organisms, filters and cleans water as it flows through, and affects the chemistry of water. -Rock Cycle -Formation

7 O Horizon (surface litter) *leaves and partially decomposed organic debris *thick in deciduous forest, but very thin in desert and tundra A Horizon (topsoil) *organic matter (humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals, thick in grasslands (good for farming) E Horizon (zone of leaching) *dissolved and suspended materials move downward B Horizon (subsoil) *yellowish in color because of iron, aluminum, humic compounds that leached down *rich in nutrients in areas where rainwater leached nutrients from topsoil C Horizon (weathered parent material) *partially broken-down inorganic materials R Horizon (bedrock) -Composition Component Clay Gravel Loam Sand Silt Description *very fine particles *compacts easily *low permeability to water *upper layers become water logged *coarse particles *rock fragments *equal mixture of clay, sand, silt, and humus *rich in nutrients *holds water, but doesn t become water logged *coarser than silt *good for crops/plants requiring low amount of water (water flows quickly) *very fine particles (between size of sand and clay) *easily transported by water

8 -Physical and Chemical Properties *ph: clay soil requires more lime or alum to lessen the acidity; iron (needed for plant growth) is unavailable when soil becomes alkaline; gymnosperms (pine, fir) grow better in mildly acidic soil *nitrogen (N): plant fertilizer component *phosphorus (P): plant fertilizer component *potash (K): common name for compound that contains potassium oxides *water-holding capacity: pores (spacing) between particles; clay has greatest capacity *permeability: movement of gas or liquid through the soil *friability: good soil is rich, light & easily worked with fingers; good for root growth *% humus: measure of soluble organic constituents; the higher the number, the better *buffering capacity: ability to neutralize acidic compounds -Main Soil Types *A soil texture triangle is used to classify the texture class of a soil. The sides of the soil texture triangle are scaled for percentages of sand, silt, and clay. Clay percentages are read from lower left to top of the triangle. Silt percentages are read from top to lower right side. Sand percentages are read from right to left across the triangle.

9 -Erosion and Other Soil Problems *Overcultivation ~Till and plowing (control weeds and increase crop yield) exposes soil to erosion *Strategies for Reducing Overcultivation ~No-till or Low-till farming: equipment to turn over soil while covering it back up and planting new crops at the same time. ~Alley cropping: trees planted in strips; crops grow between trees (shelter crops from winds) ~Contour farming: crops planted across slopes to slow down water erosion ~Strip cropping: plant alternating rows of difft crops *Overgrazing ~Large amounts of livestock (cattle) to graze on arid grasslands *Soil Degradation -Soil Conservation

Loam: About 40% sand, 40% silt, 20% clay. Mixture of pore sizes to balance water retention and aeration. Considered the best soil for growing crops.

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