The Nature and Properties of Soils

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1 The Nature and Properties of Soils TWELFTH EDITION NYLE C BRADY EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF SOIL SCIENCE CORNELL UNIVERSITY RAY R- WEIL PROFESSOR OF SOIL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND AT COLLEGE PARK PRENTICE HALL UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NEW JERSEY

2 PREFACE xi 1 THE SOILS AROUND US I I. I Functions of Soils in Our Ecosystem Medium for Plant Growth Regulator of Water Supplies Recycler of Raw Materials Habitat for Soil Organisms Engineering Medium Soil as a Natural Body The Soil Profile and Its Layers (Horizons) I I 1.9 Topsoil and Subsoil Soil: The Interface of Air, Minerals, Water, and Life 14 I. I I Mineral (Inorganic) Constituents of Soils I Soil Organic Matter Soil Water: A Dynamic Solution 2 I 1.14 Soil Air: A Changing Mixture of Gases Interaction of Four Components to Supply Plant Nutrients Nutrient Uptake by Plant Roots Soil Quality, Degradation, and Resilience Conclusion 28 Study Questions 28 Reference 28 2 FORMATION OF SOILS FROM PARENT MATERIALS Weathering of Rocks and Minerals Physical Weathering (Disintegration) Chemical Weathering (Decomposition) Factors Influencing Soil Formation Parent Materials Residual Parent Material. 41

3 2.7 Colluvial Debris Alluvial Stream Deposits Marine Sediments Parent Materials Transported by Glacial Ice and Meltwaters I Parent Materials Transported by Wind Organic Deposits Climate Biota: Living Organisms Topography Time Soil Formation in Action The Soil Profile Conclusion 69 Study Questions 69 References 69 3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION Concept of Individual Soils Comprehensive Classification System: Soil Taxonomy Categories and Nomenclature of Soil Taxonomy Soil Orders Entisols (Recent: Little If Any Profile Development) Inceptisols (Few Diagnostic Features: Inception of B Horizon) Andisols Gelisols (Permafrost and Frost Churning) Histosols (Organic Soils without Permafrost) Aridisols (Dry Soils) Vertisols (Dark, Swelling and Cracking Clays) Mollisols (Dark, Soft Soils of Grasslands) ' Alfisols (Argillic or Natric Horizon, Medium to High Bases) Ultisols (Argillic Horizon, Low Bases) Spodosols (Acid, Sandy, Forest Soils, Low Bases) Oxisols (Oxic Horizon, Highly Weathered) ' Lower-Level Categories in Soil Taxonomy Conclusion 114 Study Questions I 14 References I 16 4 SOIL ARCHITECTURE AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Soil Color I Soil Texture (Size Distribution of Soil Particles) I Soil Textural Classes x Structure of Mineral Soils Soil Density Pore Space of Mineral Soils Formation and Stabilization of Soil Aggregates Tillage and Structural Management of Soils Soil Properties Relevant to Engineering Uses Conclusion 168 Study Questions 168 References SOIL WATER: CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIOR Structure and Related Properties of Water Capillary Fundamentals and Soil Water. 174 vi

4 ,, vii AATS-U.UNIV.- BIBLIOTHEK 5.3 Soil Water Energy Concepts Soil Moisture Content and Soil Water Potential The Flow of Liquid Water in Soil Infiltration and Percolation Water Vapor Movement in Soils Qualitative Description of Soil Wetness Factors Affecting Amount of Plant-Available Soil Water Mechanisms by Which Plants Are Supplied with Water Conclusion 210 Study Questions 21 I References SOIL AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE The Global Hydrologic Cycle Fate of Precipitation and Irrigation Water The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum Efficiency of Water Use Control of Evapotranspiration (ET) Control of Surface Evaporation (E) Liquid Losses of Water from the Soil Percolation and Groundwaters Enhancing Soil Drainage Septic Tank Drain Fields I Irrigation Principles and Practices Conclusion 262 Study Questions 263 References SOIL AERATION AND TEMPERATURE The Nature of Soil Aeration Soil Aeration in the Field Means of Characterizing Soil Aeration Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Potential Factors Affecting Soil Aeration [ Ecological Effects of Soil Aeration Aeration in Relation to Soil and Plant Management Wetlands and Their Poorly Aerated Soils Processes Affected by Soil Temperature Absorption and Loss of Solar Energy I Thermal Properties of Soils Soil Temperature Control Conclusion 304 Study Questions 304 References SOIL COLLOIDS: THEIR NATURE AND PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE General Properties of Soil Colloids Types of Soil Colloids Adsorbed Cations 31 I 8.4 Fundamentals of Layer Silicate Clay Structure Mineralogical Organization of Silicate Clays Genesis of Soil Colloids Geographic Distribution of Clays Sources of Charges on Soil Colloids 323

5 8.9 Constant Charges on Silicate Clays ph-dependent Charges Cation Exchange Cation Exchange Capacity Exchangeable Cations in Field Soils Cation Exchange and the Availability of Nutrients Anion Exchange Sorption of Pesticides and Groundwater Contamination Physical Properties of Colloids Environmental Uses of Swelling-Type Clays Conclusion 341 Study Questions 342 References SOIL REACTION: ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY Sources of Hydrogen and Hydroxide Ions Classification of Soil Acidity Colloidal Control of Soil Reaction Buffering of Soils Buffering Capacity of Soils Variability in Soil ph Soil Reaction: Correlations Determination of Soil ph x ' Methods of Intensifying Soil Acidity Decreasing Soil Acidity: Liming Materials Reactions of Lime in the Soil Lime Requirements: Quantities Needed Practical Considerations, Ameliorating Acidity in Subsoils Conclusion 375 Study Questions 376 " References ALKALINE AND SALT-AFFECTED SOILS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT Sources of Alkalinity Nonsaline Alkaline Soils of Dry Areas Development of Salt-Affected Soils Measuring Salinity and Alkalinity Classes of Salt-Affected Soils Growth of Plants on Saline and Sodic Soils Selective Tolerance of Higher Plants to Saline and Sodic Soils Management of Saline and Sodic Soils Reclamation of Saline Soils Reclamation of Saline-Sodic and Sodic Soils, Management of Reclaimed Soils Conclusion 401 Study Questions 402 References ORGANISMS AND ECOLOGY OF THE SOIL 404 I I. I The Diversity of Organisms in the Soil 404 I 1.2 Organisms in Action 407 I 1.3 Organism Abundance, Biomass, and Metabolic Activity 410 I 1.4 Earthworms 412 viii

6 1.5 Termites Soil Microanimals Roots of Higher Plants Soil Algae Soil Fungi Soil Actinomycetes I Soil Bacteria Conditions Affecting the Growth of Soil Microorganisms Beneficial Effects of Soil Organisms Soil Organisms and Damage to Higher Plants 436. I 5 Ecological Relationships Among Soil Organisms Genetically Engineered Microorganisms Conclusion 444 Study Questions 444 References SOIL ORGANIC MATTER The Global Carbon Cycle The Process of Decomposition in Soils Factors Controlling Rates of Decomposition and Mineralization Humus: Genesis and Nature Composts and Composting Direct Influences of Organic Matter on Plant Growth Influence of Organic Matter on Soil Properties and the Environment Management of Amount and Quality of Soil Organic Matter Carbon Balance in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere System Factors and Practices Influencing Soil Organic Matter Levels Soils and the Greenhouse Effect Organic Soils (Histosols) Conclusion 487 Study Questions 488 References NITROGEN AND SULFUR ECONOMY OF SOILS Influence of Nitrogen on Plant Growth and Development Origin and Distribution of Nitrogen The Nitrogen Cycle ^ 495 I 3.4^ Immobilization and Mineralization 495 I 3.5 Ammonium Fixation by Clay Minerals Ammonia Volatilization Nitrification \ The Nitrate Leaching Problem Gaseous Losses by Denitrification Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Symbiotic Fixation with Legumes Symbiotic Fixation with Nonlegumes Nonsymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Addition of Nitrogen to Soil in Precipitation Reactions of Nitrogen Fertilizers 52 I Practical Management of Soil Nitrogen in Agriculture Importance of Sulfur Natural Sources of Sulfur The Sulfur Cycle Behavior of Sulfur Compounds in Soils 530 I 3.2 I Sulfur Oxidation and Reduction 532 ix

7 13.22 Sulfur Retention and Exchange Sulfur and Soil Fertility Maintenance Conclusion 536 Study Questions 537 References SOIL PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM Role of Phosphorus in Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Effects of Phosphorus on Environmental Quality The Phosphorus Cycle Organic Phosphorus in Soils Inorganic Phosphorus in Soils Solubility of Inorganic Phosphorus in Acid Soils Inorganic Phosphorus Availability at High ph Values Phosphorus-Fixation Capacity of Soils Practical Control of Phosphorus Availability Potassium: Nature and Ecological Roles Potassium in Plant and Animal Nutrition The Potassium Cycle The Potassium Problem in Soil Fertility Forms and Availability of Potassium in Soils Factors Affecting Potassium Fixation in Soils Practical Aspects of Potassium Management \ Conclusion 582 Study Questions 582 References MICRONUTRIENT ELEMENTS Deficiency versus Toxicity Role of the Micronutrients '3 Source of Micronutrients General Conditions Conducive to Micronutrient Deficiency Factors Influencing the Availability of the Micronutrient Cations Organic Compounds as Chelates, Factors Influencing the Availability of the Micronutrient Anions Need for Nutrient Balance Soil Management and Micronutrient Needs Conclusion 609 Study Questions 610 References, PRACTICAL NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Goals of Nutrient Management Environmental Quality Nutrient Resources Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Nutrient Cycles Recycling Nutrients through Animal Manures Storage, Treatment, and Management of Animal Manures Industrial and Municipal By-Products Sewage Effluent and Sludge Practical Utilization of Organic Nutrient Sources Integrated Recycling of Wastes Inorganic Commercial Fertilizers The Concept of the Limiting Factor 645 x

8 16.13 Fertilizer Application Methods Timing of Fertilizer Application Diagnostic Tools and Methods Plant Symptoms and Field Observations Plant Analysis and Tissue Testing 653 \6r-l8 Soil Analysis Site-Specific Nutrient Management Broader Aspects of Fertilizer Practice Conclusion 664 Study Questions 664 References SOIL EROSION AND ITS CONTROL Significance of Soil Erosion and Land Degradation On-Site and Off-Site Effects of Accelerated Soil Erosion Mechanics of Water Erosion Models to Predict the Extent of Water-Induced Erosion Factors Affecting Interrill and Rill Erosion Conservation Tillage Vegetative Barriers Control of Gully Erosion and Mass Wasting Control of Accelerated Erosion on Range and Forest Land Erosion and Sediment Control on Construction Sites Wind Erosion: Importance and Factors Affecting It Predicting and Controlling Wind Erosion Land Capability Classification as a Guide to Conservation Progress in Soil Conservation Conclusion Study Questions 720 References SOILS AND CHEMICAL POLLUTION Toxic Organic Chemicals Kinds of Pesticides Behavior of Organic Chemicals in Soil Effects of Pesticides-on Soil Organisms Regional Vulnerability to Pesticide Leaching Remediation of Soils Contaminated with Organic Chemicals Contamination with Toxic Inorganic Substances Potential Hazards of Chemicals in Sewage Sludge Reactions of Inorganic Contaminants in Soils Prevention and Elimination of Inorganic Chemical Contamination Landfills Soils as Organic Waste Disposal Sites, Radionuclides in Soil Radon Gas from Soils Conclusion 755 Study Questions 756 References GEOGRAPHIC SOILS INFORMATION Soil Spatial Variability in the Field Techniques and Tools for Mapping Soils Modern Technology for Soil Investigations 768 X:

9 19.4 Remote Sensing Tools for Soils Investigations Air Photos Satellite Imagery Soil Surveys The County Soil Survey Report and Its Utilization Geographic Information Systems Conclusion 784 Study Questions 785 References GLOBAL SOIL QUALITY AS AFFECTED BY HUMAN ACTIVITIES The Concept of Soil Quality/Soil Health Sustaining Biological Productivity The Population Explosion Intensified Agriculture The Green Revolution Effects of Intensified Agriculture on Soil Quality or Health Unplanned Production Intensification Prospects for the Future Modified Intensive Agricultural Systems Improving Low-Yielding Agricultural Systems Improving Soil Quality in sub-saharan Africa I Improving Soil Quality in Asia and Latin America Conclusion \ 813 Study Questions 813 References 813 APPENDIX A U.S. SOIL TAXONOMY SUBORDER MAP AND LEGEND 815 APPENDIX B CANADIAN AND FAO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS 819 APPENDIX C SI UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS AND PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS 823 GLOSSARY 827 ; INDEX 863 xii

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