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1 On: 10 June 2007 Access Details: Free Access Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: Mortimer House, Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: Methods for integrating environment into decision-making in China Q. H. Fang a ; H. S. Hong a ; L. P. Zhang a ; W. Q. Chen a ; X. Z. Xue a a State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Environmental Science Research Center, Xiamen University. Xiamen. China To cite this Article: Fang, Q. H., Hong, H. S., Zhang, L. P., Chen, W. Q. and Xue, X. Z., 'Methods for integrating environment into decision-making in China', Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 9:1, To link to this article: DOI: / URL: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: This article maybe used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Taylor and Francis 2007

2 Methods for integrating environment into decision-making in China Q. H. Fang, H. S. Hong, L. P. Zhang, W. Q. Chen, and X. Z. Xue State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Environmental Science Research Center, Xiamen University, Xiamen , China Corresponding author: The prevailing systems for decision-making in many countries tend to separate environmental factors at the policy, planning and management levels, a practice that has important implications for sustainable development. Among many methods, at different decision-making levels, environmental planning and environmental assessment are currently the most widely used in China. This article briefly introduces four case studies featuring environmental planning and assessment in Xiamen, a coastal city in southeast China. Differences in scope of application, timing, nature, legal status, methodologies and effectiveness are described. Six principles for the successful integration of environmental protection and development are advanced based on the analytical results. As well, a simplified integration framework is proposed. Keywords: strategic environmental assessment, environmental planning, Xiamen Introduction Sustainable development, as a concept or strategy, has become a popular catch phrase. Although there are still many arguments about its definition and meaning (Robinson, 2004), there is a consensus that it needs to be formulated and elaborated for practical implementation in order to increase its applicability and feasibility. Prevailing systems for decision-making in many countries tend to separate economic, social and environmental factors at the policy, planning and management levels, which has important implications for the efficiency and sustainability of development. As a result, the importance of integrating environmental factors into decision-making was brought forward in chapter 8 of the United Nations Agenda 21 (UNCDE, 1992). There are four programme areas in Chapter 8: a) Integrating environment and development at the policy, planning and management levels; b) Providing an effective legal and regulatory framework; c) Making effective use of economic instruments and market and other incentives; and d) Establishing systems for integrated environmental and economic accounting. It is important to formulate a framework that integrates different levels of the decision making process and applies concepts of environmental economics and accounting. However, as economic and social systems and ecological conditions differ widely among countries, each nation will have to work out its own concrete policy implications (WCED, 1987). Environmental/ecological planning (EP) and environmental assessment (EA) are proving to be two particularly enduring tools for environmental management (McDonald and Brown, 1995). Aiming to provide practical support for the framework of integrating environment into decision-making based on EP and EA in China, a transitional developing country, this article will introduce four case studies conducted in Xiamen, a southeast coastal city of China; and then draw comparisons. Lastly, through these comparisons a framework will be proposed. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 9(1):73 78, Copyright C 2006 AEHMS. ISSN: print / online DOI: /

3 74 Fang et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) Figure 1. Technical flow chart of Xiamen eco-city conceptual planning. Environmental planning case studies Environmental planning emerged as a necessary function for the design of the desired future and for finding effective ways for achieving sustainability (Daniel et al., 1997). Environmental planning can be defined as the appropriate arrangement of time and space for human activities and environment in order to achieve the coordinative development of environment, economy and society (Ortolano, 1984; Baldwin, 1985; Fu, 1999). It includes all planning activities with the objective of preserving or enhancing environmental values or resources (Dougherty and Hall, 1995). Case study 1: Xiamen eco-city conceptual planning (ECCP) Eco-city conceptual planning was called for by the Xiamen Environmental Protection Bureau in 2002 to integrate environment and development, with the goal of turning Xiamen into an eco-city. The adopted technical chart is shown in Figure 1. At the ECCP planning level, the priority concerns were the city s development strategy (finding the leading industry) and the ecological function zoning (spatial distribution). There is a continuing argument about which industry is the leading industry in Xiamen city, tourism or harbor. Formerly, the latter was given more attention because decision-makers thought it contributed more rapidly to economic growth. When the benefit-costs of both industries were analyzed in this project, the results indicated that the net benefit of tourism per year ( Yuan) is more than that of harbor ( Yuan); therefore, tourism was determined as the leading industry to optimize resources utilization. The results have been adopted by the government, and in the latest revised edition of Xiamen Comprehensive Planning in 2003, tourism has been placed at the same level as harbor. Another achievement was ecological function zoning. The whole City was divided into 5 divisions whose leading functions were respectively determined as administration/tourism (D1), hi-technology industry/harbor (D2), tourism (D3), ecological conservation (D4) and manufacturing (D5) (Figure 2). It was suggested that the function of D3 be changed from industry to tourism in order to protect the bay ecology and optimize the value of wetland resources in the area. Other results included the identification of critical ecosystems. Critical ecosystems are usually fragile because of intense human activities and thus should be Figure 2. Ecological function zoning of Xiamen: (1) administration/tourism, (2) hi-technology, industry/harbor, (3) tourism, (4) ecological conservation and (5) manufacturing.

4 Fang et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) conserved in order to achieve sustainable development. In Xiamen, sea areas are one of the critical ecosystems that should be prioritized, and the land-based pollutants should be determined by the marine carrying capacity. Case study 2: Suburban town environmental planning (STEP) In order to put ECCP results into practice, environmental planning at smaller geographic scale was needed; since 2003, STEP has become one such tool in Xiamen. The methodology of STEP is similar to that of ECCP except that more detailed pollution control countermeasures were advanced after ecological function zoning. For example, in Dongfu Town in D3 (Figure 2.) the subdivisions for conservation, agriculture, industry, tourism and administration/resident were decided. Environmental standards for surface water, air quality and noise in different sections were also determined. Total pollutant loading to ensure environmental objectives was calculated. Pollution control countermeasures included: 1) Shut down existing domestic waste treatment plant and selection of a new site as soon as possible; 2) Location of factories in planned industrial parks and prohibition of factories with high water consumption; 3) Construction of sewage system including collection and transportation. Environmental assessment case studies According to its different targets, EA includes environmental impact assessment (EIA) and strategic environmental assessment (SEA). Traditional projectbased EIA has intrinsic limitations of considering only cumulative spatial and temporal effects caused by different projects in the same area or the same consecutive releasing pollutant(s). Moreover, project-based EIA comes late in the decision chain, most often at a moment where, for example, the location of a project has already been determined; therefore, alternatives can not be fully considered (Partidario, 1996; Shepherd, 1996; Seht, 1999; Fischer, 2003). On the other hand, SEA is a formal, systematic and comprehensive process for evaluating the environmental effects of a policy, plan or programme and its alternatives (Therivel et al., 1992). Case study 3: Strategic environmental assessment of the tourism development plan (SEA-TDP) The southeast coastal area, including HuangCuo and ZengCuoAn of Xiamen Island, is called the Golden Beach due to its beautiful views. A ten year tourism development plan was prepared for this area. To assess the integrated environmental impact of the planned tourist developments, a SEA-TDP was conducted. It was the pilot project of the Community-Based Conservation Management (CBCM), China and Vietnam Project supported by the Canadian International Development Agency. The main methods adopted covered a suitability analysis of natural resources, a cost-benefit analysis, and public involvement. Subsequently, a concept planning of eco-tourism for HuangCuo was proposed for government officials to guide urban planning. In this concept planning, landscape spatial structure and function zoning were put forward, and the suitable population and tourist capacity were estimated. Case study 4: Strategic environmental assessment of Xiamen Bay Harbor comprehensive planning (SEA-XHP) The deep-water coastline in Xiamen Bay is under the jurisdiction of both Xiamen City and Zhangzhou City. Their harbor types and functions were duplicated without comprehensive planning. In 2000, the Fujian Provincial Government called for comprehensive planning of Xiamen Bay Harbor. In order to integrate environmental considerations into harbor development, an SEA of the project was carried out. In SEA-XHP, a fundamental environmental protection instruction (FEPI) for harbor comprehensive planning, based on the analysis of local natural resource conditions, environmental quality and relative laws, was made before the planning started. In FEPI, the coastline uses of Xiamen Bay were categorized into three classes, including areas for unrestricted harbor development, areas for restricted harbor development and areas where harbor development should be prohibited (Figure 3). Furthermore, the cumulative impact on seawater quality, marine ecology, and marine protected areas were assessed, and alternatives for protected mangrove restoration were put forward.

5 76 Fang et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) Figure 3. Fundamental environmental protection instruction in SEA-XHP. Case study comparisons Six critical factors that determine the final efficiency in integration were identified through the four case studies in Xiamen. They are: 1) the decision stage; 2) geographical scale; 3) timing; 4) nature of integrating activities (that is, EP or EA); 5) political will and legal effect; and 6) methodology. The differences are listed in Table 1. Decision stage. From their evolution, decisions can be classified into strategies, policies, plans, programmes and projects. A single decision can influence more people, more resources, larger areas and a longer time span if it is made at a higher stage of the decision making process. Among the four case studies, ECCP aimed at the guideline on how to build Xiamen, and to regulate the orientation of the city based on the principles of ecology and sustainable resource utilization. It integrated environment with development at the highest stage, therefore, the result was able to influence policy and planning. Geographical scale. Transboundary environmental issues usually emerge because environmental factors flow and species move. Therefore it is hard, even impossible, to deal effectively with environmental issues within a single administrative division without the cooperation of neighboring cities. In other words, it is more efficient to plan environmental protection and resource utilization at the regional level (SEA-TDP, ECCP). In contrast, the study area of SEA-TDP was limited to a small district, so the result was discounted. Timing. In case study 3, SEA-TDP was carried out after the development plan was made; therefore, the plan was hard to change. Indeed, some results (regarding eco-tourism and tourism environmental capacity) were not adopted by the planner. However, things Table 1. Comparison of the 4 case studies in Xiamen. Case studies ECCP STEP SEA-TDP SEA-XHP Stage of the decision Strategy Strategy Planning Planning chain Level of the The whole City A suburban town A coastal district Regional geographical scale Integrating timing Independently Independently Post planning Simultaneously Nature of integrating EP EP EA EA activities Political will and legal Non-statutory Non-statutory Non-statutory Statutory effect Methodologies Broadest and least detailed Pointed and detailed Broader and less detailed Broadest and least detailed

6 Fang et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) changed in SEA-XHP because it was conducted simultaneously with harbor planning, and the FEPI was proposed to the planner before the planning stage began. As a result, SEA-XHP became pro-active and informed planning. Nature. There are big differences between EP and EA concerning their integrating effectiveness. EP is essentially an optimal arrangement of local physical or artificial environment or ecology. Environmental function zoning, the main outcome, pro-actively provides the basis for EA. Correspondingly, the goal of EA is to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of proposed human activities and to guarantee the realization of EP so that both are necessary. However, EP is the fundamental work for environmental management. Political will and legal effect. Political will is a factor that cannot be neglected, especially where integration has not been required by law. The case study SEA-XHP is an interesting example. It was carried out in 2000 when no laws required an EA for planning purposes. However, the EA was finally accepted as important and indeed necessary by decision-makers after the advocacy of far-sighted researchers. It was strong political will that make it possible. But the peer-reviewed SEA-XHP report was not approved by higher authority in 2001 because the planning was stopped for some reason. May 2004, planning was re-implemented after the EIA Act was enacted in Planning EIA is now required, so the planner asked that the SEA- XHP report be amended. The report will be submitted to higher authority accompanied by plan for the area. This illustrates that although political will is important, the determinative factor is legal regulation. At present, EP is not paid enough attention because the process lacks statutory support. The best EP is worthless without implementation: law and regulation is the only way to ensure planning implementation. In Xiamen, results of the three projects ECCP, STEP and SEA-TDP were not always integrated into decisionmaking because regulations did not provide sufficient support. Methodology. While many are easily convinced by complex mathematical models or other highly quantitative methods, experiences in Xiamen indicate that the right methodology is more important. The decisionmaking process is complex, involving many aspects. The purpose is not to show magnificent models but to integrate environment with development in order to prevent costly planning errors. Secondly, applied methodologies should fit the nature, scale and object reviewed. As a rule, as the level of integration increases, the methodology can be broader and less detailed. Integration framework Some principles for the successful integration of environment and development can be concluded: 1) Integration should be implemented at all stages of the decision chain, however, the higher the better; 2) Solutions to environmental issues can be found more easily in a larger geographical scale; therefore, resource use and environment should be planned as a whole in a region; 3) Environmental considerations should be integrated into development at the earliest stage; 4) Environmental planning is not only the basis for environmental management, but it is the most important result of integration. Therefore, its statutory status should be enhanced. 5) Methodologies used should fit the characteristics of the reviewed objectives. Based on the analysis of determining factors for successful integration, we present here a simplified integration framework (Figure 4). The decision chain is represented on the right side of Figure 4, and the corresponding integration level is on the left. Environmental planning formulates the foundation of integration, determines the orientation of a city (mostly shown as leading industries) and develops environmental function zoning. Based on fully recognized strengths and weaknesses, scientific orientation leads to efficient natural resource use, healthy urban ecology, and competitive locations in a region. The function zoning reflects resource and environmental heterogeneity. The determination of orientation and function zoning is a pivotal stage in the integration of environment into decision-making. The results should be statutory so that it can be entrenched enough to regulate the Figure 4. A simplified integration framework for determining factors for successful EA and EP integration into planning.

7 78 Fang et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) regional and sectional development strategy. Then policies, plans and programmes will be formulated in accordance with strategies, and SEA should be concomitant at each level. EIA has been and will still be an effective way to incorporate environmental concerns. As to practices in China, EIA has proved to be an effective way to mitigate the negative impacts of proposed development projects and to control pollution. As a result of the enactment of the EIA Act in 2002, EIAs have been required for the first time in regional planning exercises. However, there is still a long way to go before SEA and EP become mandatory parts of all development plans. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Canadian International Development Agency, the Fujian Provincial Government and the Xiamen Environmental Protection Bureau for their financial support. We also acknowledge the two anonymous referees for their valuable comments. The assistance of Frances Bristow from Dalhousie University of Canada in making the earlier work read more smoothly is also greatly appreciated. References Baldwin, J. H., Environmental planning and management. Westview Press, Boulder, B.C., Canada. Daniel, S. E., Diakoulaki, D. C., Pappis, C. P., Operations research and environmental planning. Europ. J. Operational Res. 102, Dougherty, T. C., Hall, A. W., Environmental impact assessment of irrigation and drainage projects., 53 FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper. HR Wallingford, UK. Fischer, T. B., Strategic environmental assessment in postmodern times. EIA Review 23, Fu, G. W., Definition, function and characteristic analysis of modern environmental planning. China Environm. Sci. 19(1), McDonald, T. G., Brown, L., Going beyond environmental input to planning and design. EIA Review 15, Ortolano, L. Environmental planning and decision making. Wiley Press, Hoboken, NJ. Partidario, M. R., Strategic environmental assessment: Key issues emerging from recent practice. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 16, Robinson, J., Squaring the circle? Some thoughts on the idea of sustainable development. Ecolog. Econ. 48, Seht, H., Requirements of a comprehensive strategic environmental assessment system. Landscape and Urban Planning 45, Shepherd, A., Ortolano, L., Strategic environmental assessment for sustainable urban development. EIA Review 16, Therivel, R., Wilson, E., Thompson, S., Heaney, D., Pritchard, D., Strategic Environmental Assessment: Earthscan Publication Ltd., London. UNCDE, Agenda 21: Programme of action for sustainable development. United Nations Publications, New York. WCED, Our Common Future. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.