Contents i SYLLABUS osmania university UNIT - I CHAPTER - 1 : LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS Steady Flow Energy Equation, Conditions of Reversible and Irreversible Processes. CHAPTER - 2 : HEAT TRANSFER Modes of Heat Transfer Conduction and Convention, Radiation Concept of Black Body Radiation, Steady State Conduction, Heat Transfer Through Plane Walls, Cylinders, Critical Radius of Insulation for Cylinders. CHAPTER - 3 : HEAT EXCHANGER Classification, Industry Applications, LMTD Calculations, Parallel and Counter Flows. CHAPTER - 4 : REFRIGERATION SYSTEM Types, Co-Efficient of Performance and Ton, SVC and Air Refrigeration and Properties of Refrigerants, Eco Friendly Refrigerants, Psychometric Processes for Summer and Winter A/C Only. UNIT - II CHAPTER - 5 : PRINCIPLES OF IC ENGINES Petrol and Diesel, 2 Stroke/4 Stroke and Load Characteristics. CHAPTER - 6 : RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS Concept of Multi Stage Compression, Types, Loads Characteristics, Calculation of Mechanical and Thermal Efficiencies. CHAPTER - 7 : STEAM GENERATORS Generation of Steam, Boilers. CHAPTER - 8 : GAS TURBINES Gas Turbines, Types, Classification, Constant Pressure.
ii Contents UNIT - III CHAPTER - 9 : GEARS Classifications of Gears, Nomenclature, Gear Trains, Types-Single, Compound, Inverted and Epi-Cycle Gear Trains. CHAPTER - 10 : BELT AND ROPE DRIVES Open and Cross Belt, Length of Belt Ratio of Tensions Flat Belts, Condition for Maximum Power. UNIT - IV CHAPTER - 11 : FLUID DYNAMICS Introduction to Bernoulli s Equation, Applications Venturi Meter, Orifice Meter, Flow Through Pipes, Hagen s Formula, Friction Loss in Pipes, Darcy s Formula, Reynolds Number and Its Significance. CHAPTER - 12 : HYDRAULIC TURBINES Classification, Working Principle, Francis, Kaplan, Pelton Wheels, Work Done, Power Output, Efficiency, Specific Speed, Unit Quantities, Draft Tube, Performance Characteristics Curves. UNIT - V CHAPTER - 13 : PUMPS Working Principles and Construction Details of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps, Effect of Friction, Acceleration Head, Work Done, Power Required With and Without Air Vessels, Problems Faced in Pumps, Precaution, Cavitation, Primary Velocity Triangles of Centrifugal Pumps.
Contents iii principles of mechanical engineering FOR b.e. (o.u) ii year i semester (ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING) CONTENTS UNIT - I [CH. H. - 1] ] [LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS]... 1.1-1.80 1.1 INTRODUCTION... 1.2 1.2 APPROACHES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM... 1.2 1.2.1 Macroscopic Approach... 1.2 1.2.2 Microscopic Approach... 1.3 1.3 CONCEPTS OF SYSTEM, PROCESSES AND PROPERTIES... 1.3 1.3.1 Thermodynamic System... 1.3 1.3.1.1 Types of Thermodynamic Systems... 1.4 1.3.1.1.1 Open System... 1.4 1.3.1.1.2 Closed System... 1.5 1.3.1.1.3 Isolated System... 1.6 1.3.1.2 Adiabatic and Diabatic System... 1.6 1.3.1.3 Phase : Homogeneous and Heterogeneous System... 1.7 1.3.1.3.1 Homogenous System... 1.7 1.3.1.3.2 Heterogenous System... 1.7 1.3.2 Thermodynamic Properties... 1.7 1.3.2.1 Intensive and Extensive Properties... 1.8
iv Contents 1.3.3 State and Path of the Thermodynamic System... 1.8 1.3.3.1 State of the Thermodynamic System... 1.8 1.3.3.2 Path of the Thermodynamic System... 1.9 1.3.3.3 Point and Path Function... 1.9 1.3.4 Thermodynamic Process... 1.10 1.3.4.1 Cyclic Process... 1.10 1.3.4.2 Quasi-Static Process... 1.11 1.3.4.3 Reversible and Irreversible Process... 1.11 1.3.4.3.1 Comparison Between Reversible and Irreversible Process... 1.12 1.3.4.4 Isothermal, Adiabatic, Isobaric and Isochoric Process... 1.13 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM... 1.13 1.5 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS... 1.14 1.6 ZEROTH TH LAW W OF THERMODYNAMICS... 1.14 1.6.1 Temperature Scales... 1.14 1.6.1.1 Celsius Scale... 1.15 1.6.1.2 Fahrenheit Scale... 1.15 1.6.1.3 Kelvin Scale... 1.15 1.6.1.4 Rankine Scale... 1.15 1.6.2 The Relation between Various Temperature Scales... 1.15 1.7 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS... 1.16 1.7.1 Corollaries of First Law of Thermodynamics... 1.16 1.7.1.1 Corollary 1 : Internal Energy As a Property of System... 1.16 1.7.1.2 Corollary 2 : Conservation of Energy... 1.18 1.7.1.3 Corollary 3 : Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind (PMM-1)... 1.18
Contents v 1.7.2 Energy Interaction... 1.19 1.7.2.1 Work ork... 1.19 1.7.2.2 Heat... 1.20 1.7.2.3 Comparison of Work and Heat... 1.21 1.7.3 The Ideal Gas Equation of State... 1.21 1.7.4 Specific Heats... 1.22 1.7.4.1 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure... 1.22 1.7.4.2 Specific Heat At Constant Volume... 1.22 1.7.4.3 Relation between Specific Heats and Gas Constant... 1.23 1.7.5 Enthalpy... 1.23 1.7.6 Calculations of Change in Internal Energy, Enthalpy and Work ork Done... 1.24 1.7.6.1 Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process... 1.24 1.7.6.2 Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process... 1.26 1.7.6.3 Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process... 1.27 1.7.6.4 Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic) Process... 1.28 1.7.6.5 Polytropic Process... 1.31 1.7.7 Steady Flow Energy Equation for an Open System... 1.39 1.7.7.1 Conditions for Steady Flow System... 1.40 1.7.7.2 Equation of Continuity... 1.40 1.7.7.3 Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)... 1.40 1.7.7.4 Workdone in Flow Process... 1.42 1.7.7.5 SFEE For Engineering Devices... 1.45 1.7.8 Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics... 1.47 1.8 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS... 1.48 1.8.1 Terminology Used in Second Law of Thermodynamics... 1.48 1.8.2 Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statement... 1.49 1.8.2.1 Kelvin-Planck Statement... 1.49 1.8.2.2 Clausius Statement... 1.50
vi Contents 1.8.3 Conditions of Reversible and Irreversible Processes... 1.50 1.8.4 Clausius Inequality... 1.51 1.8.5 Concept of Entropy... 1.52 1.8.5.1 Change of Entropy... 1.52 1.8.5.2 Entropy as a Thermodynamic Property... 1.52 1.8.5.3 Characteristics of Entropy... 1.53 1.8.6 Calculations of Entropy... 1.53 1.8.6.1 Change in Entropy for Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process... 1.55 1.8.6.2 Change in Entropy for Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process... 1.55 1.8.6.3 Change in Entropy for Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process... 1.55 1.8.6.4 Change in Entropy for Adiabatic Process... 1.56 1.8.6.5 Change in Entropy for Polytropic Process... 1.56 1.9 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS... 1.64 1.10 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 1.64 Short Questions and Answers... 1.72-1.80 UNIT - I [CH. - 2] ] [HEAT TRANSFER]... 1.81-1.110 2.1 INTRODUCTION... 1.82 2.2 BASIC MODES OF HEAT T TRANSFER... 1.82 2.2.1 Conduction... 1.82 2.2.2 Convection... 1.83 2.2.3 Radiation... 1.84 2.2.4 Comparison of Conduction, Convection and Radiation... 1.84 2.3 FOURIER S LAW OF CONDUCTION... 1.84 2.3.1 Thermal Conductivity... 1.85 2.3.2 One Dimensional Steady State Conduction... 1.85 2.3.3 Conduction Heat Transfer Through Plane Walls Without Heat Generation... 1.87
Contents vii 2.3.4 Conduction Through a Composite Wall all... 1.88 2.3.5 Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder... 1.89 2.3.6 Analogy Between Ohm s Law and Fourier ourier s Law of Conduction... 1.90 2.4 NEWTON S LAW OF COOLING... 1.95 2.5 THERMAL RADIATION... 1.97 2.6 CONCEPT OF BLACK BODY RADIATION... 1.98 2.7 STEFAN BOLTZMANN LAW... 1.98 2.8 CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION FOR CYLINDERS... 1.100 2.9 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 1.102 Short Questions and Answers... 1.104-1.110 UNIT - I [CH. - 3] ] [HEAT EXCHANGER]... 1.111-1.124 3.1 INTRODUCTION... 1.112 3.2 CLASSIFICATION HEAT T EXCHANGERS CHANGERS... 1.112 3.2.1 Classification According to Heat Transfer Process... 1.112 3.2.2 Classification According to Constructional Features... 1.113 3.2.3 Classification According to Flow Arrangement... 1.114 3.3 INDUSTRY Y APPLICATIONS OF HEAT T EXCHANGERS... 1.116 3.4 LOGARITHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE TURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD) CALCULATIONS... 1.116 3.4.1 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger... 1.117 3.4.2 Counter Flow Heat Exchanger... 1.119 Short Questions and Answers... 1.123-1.124 UNIT - I [CH. - 4] ] [REFRIGERATION SYSTEM]... 1.125-1.192 4.1 INTRODUCTION... 1.126 4.1.1 Applications of Refrigeration... 1.126 4.2 BASIC TERMINOLOGY... 1.126 4.3 HEAT PUMP AND REFRIGERATOR... 1.127 4.4 TYPES OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS... 1.129 4.5 ICE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM... 1.129
viii Contents 4.6 AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM... 1.131 4.6.1 Air Refrigerator Working on Reversed Carnot Cycle... 1.131 4.6.2 Air Refrigerator Working on Bell-Coleman Cycle... 1.136 4.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Refrigeration Systems... 1.146 4.7 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM... 1.146 4.7.1 Essential Components of a Vapour Compression System... 1.146 4.7.2 Vapour Compression Cycle on Pressure Enthalpy (p-h) Chart... 1.148 4.7.3 Types Vapour Compression Cycle... 1.149 4.7.3.1 Vapour Compression Cycle with Dry Saturated Vapour After Compressions... 1.149 4.7.3.2 Vapour Compression Cycle with Wet et Vapour After Compression... 1.151 4.7.3.3 Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with Superheated Vapour After Compression... 1.151 4.7.3.4 Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with Superheated Vapour Before Compression... 1.152 4.7.3.5 Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with Undercooling (or) Subcooling of Refrigerant... 1.153 4.7.4 Factors Affecting the Performance of a Simple Vapour Compression System... 1.154 4.7.4.1 Effect of Suction (or) Evaporator Pressure... 1.154 4.7.4.2 Effect of Condenser (or) Discharge Pressure... 1.154 4.7.4.3 Effect of Suction Vapour Superheat... 1.155 4.7.4.4 Effect of Liquid Sub-Cooling... 1.156 4.7.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vapour Compression System... 1.156 4.8 VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM... 1.157 4.8.1 Simple Ammonia-Water ater Absorption Refrigeration System... 1.157 4.8.2 Practical Ammonia-Water ater Absorption System... 1.159 4.8.3 COP of an Ideal Vapour Absorption System... 1.160
Contents ix 4.8.4 Desirable Properties of Refrigerant-Absorbent Combination... 1.164 4.8.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vapour Absorption System... 1.164 4.8.6 Comparison of Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption Systems... 1.165 4.9 THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM... 1.166 4.9.1 Analysis of a Thermoelectric Refrigerator... 1.168 4.9.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermoelectric Refrigeration System... 1.173 4.9.3 Applications of Thermoelectric Refrigeration System... 1.173 4.10 REFRIGERANTS... 1.174 4.10.1 Types of Refrigerants efrigerants... 1.174 4.10.1.1 Primary Refrigerants... 1.174 4.10.1.2 Secondary Refrigerants... 1.174 4.10.2 Desirable Properties of an Ideal Refrigerants... 1.174 4.11 ECO-FRIENDL -FRIENDLY Y REFRIGERANTS... 1.175 4.12 INTRODUCTION TO O PSYCHROMETR CHROMETRY... 1.177 4.12.1 Psychrometry Terms erms... 1.177 4.12.2 Psychrometry Chart... 1.177 4.12.3 Psychrometry Processes... 1.179 4.12.3.1 Sensible Heating... 1.180 4.12.3.2 Sensible Cooling... 1.180 4.12.3.3 Humidification and Dehumidification... 1.181 4.12.3.4 Cooling and Dehumidification... 1.183 4.12.3.5 Cooling and Humidification... 1.184 4.12.3.6 Heating and Humidification... 1.184 4.12.3.7 Heating and Dehumidification (Adiabatic Chemical Dehumidification)... 1.186 4.12.4 Summer and Winter Air Conditioning... 1.186 Short Questions and Answers... 1.188-1.192
x Contents UNIT - II [CH. H. - 5] ] [PRINCIPLES OF IC ENGINES]... 2.1-2.44 5.1 INTRODUCTION... 2.2 5.1.1 Advantages of I.C Engines Over E.C Engines... 2.2 5.1.2 Disadvantages of IC Engines... 2.2 5.1.3 Applications of I.C Engines... 2.2 5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES... 2.3 5.3 BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS... 2.4 5.3.1 Engine Nomenclature... 2.6 5.4 WORKING OF IC ENGINES WITH P-V DIAGRAMS... 2.8 5.4.1 Working of Four our-stroke Petrol (SI) Engines... 2.8 5.4.2 Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engines... 2.11 5.4.3 Working of Two wo-stroke Petrol (SI) Engines... 2.13 5.4.3.1 p-v V Diagram for Two wo Stroke Petrol Engine... 2.14 5.4.4 Two wo Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine... 2.15 5.4.4.1 p-v V Diagram for Two wo Stroke Diesel Engine... 2.16 5.4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Two wo-stroke Cycle Engines... 2.18 5.5 COMPARISON OF PETROL (S.I).I) AND DIESEL (C.I) ENGINE... 2.19 5.6 COMPARISON OF TWO-STROKE AND FOUR-STROKE I.C ENGINES... 2.20 5.7 VALVE VE TIMING DIAGRAM GRAM... 2.21 5.7.1 Valve Timing Diagram for a Four our-stroke Petrol Engine... 2.21 5.7.2 Valve Timing Diagram for a Four-stroke Diesel Engines... 2.22 5.8 ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS... 2.23 5.8.1 Mean Effective Pressure (P m )... 2.23 5.8.2 Indicated Power... 2.24 5.8.3 Brake Power... 2.25 5.8.4 Friction Power... 2.26
Contents xi 5.8.5 Specific Fuel Consumption... 2.26 5.8.6 Mechanical Efficiency... 2.27 5.8.7 Thermal Efficiency... 2.27 5.9 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 2.32 Short Questions and Answers... 2.39-2.44 UNIT - II [CH. H. - 6] ] [RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS]... 2.45-2.78 6.1 INTRODUCTION... 2.46 6.2 TYPES OF AIR COMPRESSOR... 2.46 6.3 RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR... 2.46 6.3.1 Construction of Reciprocating Air Compressor... 2.46 6.3.2 Working Operations of Reciprocating Air Compressor... 2.47 6.3.3 Classification of Reciprocating Air Compressors... 2.48 6.4 SINGLE STAGE GE RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR... 2.48 6.4.1 Workdone Without Clearance Volume... 2.49 6.4.1.1 Workdone When Air is Compressed Polytropically (pv n = Constant)... 2.50 6.4.1.2 Workdone When Air is Compressed Adiabatically (pv g = Constant)... 2.51 6.4.1.3 Workdone When Air is Compressed Isothermally (pv = Constant)... 2.51 6.4.2 Calculation of Efficiencies for Reciprocating Air Compressor... 2.54 6.4.2.1 Isothermal Efficiency (Thermal Efficiency)... 2.54 6.4.2.2 Adiabatic Efficiency... 2.55 6.4.2.3 Mechanical Efficiency... 2.55 6.4.2.4 Volumetric Efficiency... 2.55 6.4.3 Effect of Clearance Volume on Workdone and Efficiency... 2.55 6.4.3.1 Effect of Clearance Volume on Work Done... 2.56 6.4.3.2 Effect of Clearance Volume on Volumetric Efficiency... 2.57
xii Contents 6.5 CONCEPT OF MULTIST TISTAGE COMPRESSION... 2.59 6.5.1 Two Stage Air Compressor... 2.60 6.5.2 Workdone in Multistage Compression... 2.61 6.5.3 Advantages of Multistage Compression... 2.66 6.6 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 2.67 Short Questions and Answers... 2.76-2.78 UNIT - II [CH. H. - 7] ] [STEAM GENERATORS]... 2.79-2.118 7.1 INTRODUCTION TO STEAM BOILERS... 2.80 7.1.1 Requirements of a Boiler... 2.80 7.1.2 Classification of Boilers... 2.81 7.2 FIRE TUBE BOILERS... 2.82 7.2.1 Lancashire Boilers... 2.83 7.2.2 Cornish Boiler... 2.84 7.2.3 Cochran Boiler... 2.86 7.2.4 Locomotive Boiler... 2.87 7.3 WATER TUBE BOILERS... 2.89 7.3.1 Babcock-Wilcox Boiler... 2.89 7.3.2 Difference between Fire ire Tube and Water Tube Boiler... 2.91 7.4 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS... 2.93 7.4.1 LaMont Boiler... 2.93 7.4.2 Benson Boiler... 2.94 7.5 BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES... 2.95 7.5.1 Boiler Mountings... 2.95 7.5.2 Boiler Accessories... 2.102 7.6 BOILER PERFORMANCE... 2.104 7.6.1 Evaporation Rate... 2.104 7.6.2 Factor of Evaporation... 2.105 7.6.3 Boiler Efficiency... 2.106 7.6.4 Economiser Efficiency... 2.107 7.6.5 Boiler Power ower... 2.107 7.7 SOLVED PROBLEMS OF BOILER PERFORMANCE... 2.108 Short Questions and Answers... 2.115-2.118
Contents xiii UNIT - II [CH. H. - 8] ] [GAS TURBINE]... 2.119-2.140 8.1 INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE... 2.120 8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINE... 2.120 8.2.1 Constant Pressure Gas Turbines... 2.120 8.2.1.1 Closed Cycle Gas Turbines... 2.120 8.2.1.1.1 Gas Turbine With Intercooling... 2.122 8.2.1.1.2 Gas Turbine With Reheating eheating... 2.124 8.2.1.2 Open Cycle Gas Turbine... 2.125 8.2.1.2.1 Gas Turbine With Regeneration egeneration... 2.126 8.2.1.3 Semi Closed Cycle Gas Turbine urbine... 2.127 8.2.1.4 Comparision Between Closed and Open Cycle Gas Turbine... 2.127 8.2.2 Constant Volume Gas Turbines... 2.128 8.3.3 POLY Y TROPIC EFFICIENCY... 2.129 8.4 ADVANT ANTAGES AND DISADVANT ANTAGES OF GAS TURBINES... 2.131 8.5 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 2.131 Short Questions and Answers... 2.139-2.140 UNIT - III [CH. - 9] ] [GEARS GEARS]... 3.1-3.24 9.1 INTRODUCTION... 3.2 9.2 GEARS... 3.2 9.2.1 Gear Tooth Profiles... 3.3 9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS... 3.4 9.3.1 Spur Gears... 3.4 9.3.2 Helical Gears... 3.5 9.3.3 Double Helical and Herringbone Gear... 3.5 9.3.4 Bevel Gears... 3.6 9.3.5 Worm Gears... 3.6
xiv Contents 9.4 GEAR NOMENCLATURE TURE... 3.7 9.5 LAW OF GEARINGS... 3.10 9.6 GEAR TRAINS... 3.10 9.6.1 Types of Gear Trains... 3.10 9.6.1.1 Simple Gear Train... 3.11 9.6.1.2 Compound Gear Train rain... 3.12 9.6.2 Reverted Gear Train... 3.13 9.6.3 Epi-Cycle Gear Train... 3.14 9.7 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 3.15 Short Questions and Answers... 3.19-3.24 UNIT - III [CH. - 10] ] [BELT AND ROPE DRIVES]... 3.25-3.56 10.1 INTRODUCTION... 3.26 10.2 BELT T AND ROPE DRIVES... 3.26 10.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Belt Drives... 3.26 10.2.2 Types of Belts... 3.27 10.2.2.1 Flat Belts... 3.27 10.2.2.2 V-Belts... 3.28 10.2.2.3 Circular Belts (or) Ropes... 3.28 10.2.3 Belt Materials... 3.28 10.3 OPEN AND CROSS BELT T DRIVES... 3.28 10.4 COMPOUND BELT T DRIVE... 3.29 10.5 VELOCITY (OR) SPEED RATIO OF A BELT T DRIVE... 3.30 10.5.1 Effect of Belt Thickness on Velocity Ratio... 3.31 10.5.2 Effect of Slip on Velocity Ratio atio... 3.31 10.5.3 Effect of Creep on Velocity Ratio... 3.33 10.5.4 Velocity Ratio of a Compound Belt Drive... 3.33 10.6 LENGTH OF BELT... 3.35 10.6.1 Length of An Open Belt... 3.35 10.6.2 Length of a Crossed Belt Drive... 3.37
Contents xv 10.7 ANGLE OF CONTACT CT... 3.40 10.7.1 Angle of Contact For Open Belt Drive... 3.40 10.7.2 Angle of Contact For Crossed Belt Drive... 3.41 10.8 RATIO OF TENSIONS OF FLAT BELT... 3.41 10.9 POWER TRANSMITTED BY A BELT... 3.44 10.9.1 Centrifugal Tension... 3.45 10.9.2 Initial Tension... 3.46 10.10 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM POWER TRANSMISSION FOR FLAT BELT... 3.46 10.11 ROPE DRIVES... 3.48 10.12 COMPARISION BETWEEN GEARS AND BELT T DRIVES... 3.48 10.13 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 3.49 Short Questions and Answers... 3.53-3.56 UNIT - IV [CH. - 11] ] [FLUID DYNAMICS]... 4.1-4.38 11.1 INTRODUCTION... 4.2 11.2 FLUID PROPERTIES... 4.2 11.2.1 Types of Fluid... 4.3 11.2.2 Types of Fluid Flow... 4.4 11.3 FLUID PRESSURE AND ENERGY... 4.6 11.3.1 Types of Pressure... 4.10 11.3.2 Energy of Fluid... 4.12 11.4 EQUATIONS OF FLUID FLOW... 4.13 11.4.1 Continuity Equation... 4.13 11.4.2 Euler s Equation of Motion... 4.14 11.4.3 Introduction to Bernoulli s Equation... 4.16 11.4.3.1 Bernoulli s Theorem... 4.16
xvi Contents 11.5 FLOW METERS (APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI S EQUATION)... 4.20 11.5.1 Orifice Meter... 4.20 11.5.2 Nozzle Meter... 4.23 11.5.3 Venturi Meter... 4.23 11.5.4 Pitot Tube ube... 4.26 11.6 FLOW THROUGH PIPES... 4.29 11.6.1 Loss of Energy (Head) in Pipes... 4.29 11.6.1.1 Major Energy Losses... 4.29 11.6.1.2 Minor Energy Losses... 4.30 11.6.2 Reynolds Number... 4.31 11.6.3 Hagen Poiseuille Formula... 4.32 11.7 SOLVED PROBLEMS... 4.32 Short Questions and Answers... 4.36-4.38 UNIT - IV [CH. - 12] ] [HYDRAULIC TURBINES]... 4.39-4.88 12.1 INTRODUCTION... 4.40 12.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES... 4.40 12.3 HEADS AND EFFICIENCIES OF A TURBINE... 4.41 12.4 REACTION AND IMPULSE TURBINES... 4.43 12.4.1 Comparision Between Reaction and Impulse Turbines urbines... 4.44 12.5 PELTON WHEEL... 4.45 12.5.1 Maximum Efficiency : Velocity Triangles and Workdone for Pelton Wheel... 4.46 12.6 FRANCIS TURBINE... 4.53 12.6.1 Important Relations for Francis Turbine... 4.55 12.7 KAPLAN TURBINE... 4.60 12.7.1 Important Relations for Kaplan Turbine... 4.62 12.7.2 Comparision Between Francis and Kaplan Turbine... 4.64 12.8 SPECIFIC SPEED AND UNIT QUANTITIES... 4.64 12.8.1 Specific Speed... 4.64 12.8.2 Physical Significance of Specific Speed... 4.66 12.8.3 Unit Quantities... 4.69 12.8.4 Significance of Unit Quantities... 4.72
Contents xvii 12.9 DRAFT TUBE... 4.74 12.9.1 Functions of Draft Tube... 4.74 12.9.2 Types of Draft Tubes ubes... 4.75 12.9.3 Draft Tube Theory... 4.77 12.9.4 Efficiency of a Draft Tube... 4.78 12.10 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS CURVES... 4.82 12.10.1 Main Characteristic Curves... 4.82 12.10.2 Operating Characteristic Curves... 4.83 12.10.3 Constant Efficiency/ Muschel Curves/ISO Efficiency Curves... 4.84 Short Questions and Answers... 4.85-4.88 UNIT - V [CH. - 13] ] [PUMPS PUMPS]... 5.1-5.48 13.1 INTRODUCTION... 5.2 13.2 RECIPROCATING PUMPS... 5.2 13.2.1 Classification of Reciprocating Pumps... 5.2 13.2.2 Single Acting Reciprocating Pump... 5.3 13.2.2.1 Discharge Through a Single Acting Reciprocating Pump... 5.4 13.2.2.2 Work ork Done by a Single Acting Reciprocating Pump... 5.4 13.2.3 Double Acting Reciprocating Pump... 5.5 13.2.3.1 Discharge Through a Double Acting Reciprocating Pump... 5.5 13.2.3.2 Work ork Done by a Double Acting Reciprocating Pump... 5.6 13.2.3.3 Slip and Coefficient of Discharge... 5.7 13.2.4 Variation of Pressure Head on Suction and Delivery Pipes... 5.8 13.2.4.1 Due to Acceleration of Piston... 5.8 13.2.4.2 Due to Friction in Pipes... 5.13
xviii Contents 13.2.5 Air Vessels essels... 5.14 13.2.5.1 Pressure Head in the Cylinder During Delivery Stroke... 5.17 13.2.5.2 Pressure Head in the Cylinder During Suction Stroke... 5.19 13.2.5.3 Work Done With Air Vessel... 5.20 13.2.5.4 Work Saved by Air Vessel... 5.20 13.2.5.5 Discharge of Liquid... 5.22 13.3 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS... 5.25 13.3.1 Components of Centrifugal Pump... 5.25 13.3.2 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump... 5.27 13.3.3 Velocity Triangles of Centrifugal Pumps umps... 5.28 13.3.4 Work ork Done by Centrifugal Pump ump... 5.29 13.3.5 Heads and Efficiencies of Centrifugal Pumps... 5.32 13.3.5.1 Heads... 5.32 13.3.5.2 Efficiencies... 5.34 13.3.5.3 Manometric Efficiency (h mano )... 5.34 13.3.5.4 Mechanical Efficiency (h m )... 5.35 13.3.5.5 Overall Efficiency... 5.35 13.3.6 Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pumps... 5.37 13.3.6.1 Pumps in Series... 5.38 13.3.6.2 Pumps in Parallel... 5.40 13.3.7 Comparision Between Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps... 5.42 13.3.8 Priming... 5.42 13.3.9 Problems Faced in Pumps... 5.43 13.3.9.1 Cavitation... 5.43 13.3.9.2 Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps... 5.43 13.3.9.3 Remedies to Problems in Pumps... 5.43 Short Questions and Answers... 5.44-5.48 EXPECTED UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS Expected University Questions with Answers... E.1 - E.16