Evaluation & Interpretation of Soil Physical and Chemical Properties for Vineyard Design and Vine Nutritional Management Paul R. Anamosa, Ph.D.. Anamosa Inc. - Vineyard Soil Technologies www.vineyardsoil.com
Site Characteristics That Influence Vine Growth and Their Potential for Management Influences of Variability Potential for Management Management Tools Climatic Conditions Low Irrigation, Variety Thermic and Luminous microclimate of the exposed fruit Geographical & Topographic features Eco-geo-pedological milieu Moderate Low Low Row orientation; Trellis design; Canopy management Block design Fumigation; Earthworms; Microbiological Soups
Site Characteristics That Influence Vine Growth and Their Potential for Management - continued Influences of Variability Clone & Rootstock Potential for Management High Management Tools Clone selection; Rootstock selection Yield and Canopy Conundrum Soil Properties High Moderate Trellis design; Canopy management; Crop Management Block design; Tillage; Amendments Mineral Nutrition of Vine High Fertilizer; Tillage Water Status of Vine High California Moderate East Coast Irrigation; Tillage; Drainage; Cover-crops
Goal of Vineyard Design and Management Produce uniformly high quality fruit within each management domain (block). A management domain is defined as an area that grows a single variety on a single rootstock supplied by a unique system for input delivery. HOW: Control variability within a block!
Wine Makers Nightmare NDVI Vigor Classes High N W E S Low Soil 200 0 200 400 Feet Aerial Image: August 30, 2003 Prepared by Crop Care Associates, Inc. 6795 Washington St., Yountville, CA 94599 phone: (707) 944-2998 fax: (707) 944-2163
How to start? What is your environment? Soil & climate What are the properties of your soils? Texture, structure, ph, EC, nutrients What are the yield and quality objectives of your vineyard? 3.0 or 8 tons/acre What are the realistic economic constraints. Short & Long-term management budgets. What are the relative cost and benefits of the tools you have. Are you using proven methods? Paul R. R. Anamosa, Ph.D.. Vineyard Soil Technologies 707255-2176 225-2898
Objectives of the soil assessment: Identify soil variation (chemical, physical, biological) Quantify soil fertility Detect vine growth impediments (salts, toxic elements, clay layers) Recommend management responses to growth impediments. Compartmentalize soils of different characteristics. Report and map attributes to assure precise development.
Elements of Soil / Vine Management Assessment Physical restrictions to root growth ripping and tillage: type, depth, extent Soil available water storage Deficient... excess: difficult irrigation... excess vigor Internal drainage of soil water depth of ripping... agricultural drains Soil stability soil slippage, erosion, compaction, crusting... Chemical hazards salt, sodium, boron, magnesium, aluminum, heavy metals.. Bio-availability of Plant Nutrients N, P, K, Ca, Mg, B, Cu, Mn, Zn Biological hazards phylloxera, nematodes.
Evaluating Viticultural Potential Layer depths + Texture + Rock % + Structure +... = TAW for each layer Effective root depth Fertility Status Salinity Sodicity Chloride Alkalinity/Acidity Aluminium Boron Ca:Mg Heavy Metals
Definitions: Total available water (TAW). The total amount of stored water within a given depth that is available for plant uptake (field capacity minus the permanent wilting point). Effective Rooting Depth (ERD): The depth of soil in which 80-90% of the roots exist. Typically this is defined by a change in horizon hardness and is somewhat abrupt.
Total Available Water influenced by Texture 12% 18% 22% 20% 16% Paul R. Paul Anamosa, R. Anamosa, Ph.D. Ph.D.. Vineyard - Vineyard Soil Technologies Soil Technologies 707 255-2176
Effective Rooting Depth (ERD) Is tillage needed? Will subsoil hardness stop roots to tillage depth?
Soil Physical Properties Texture: loam, clay loam, etc. Structure: the degree of aggregation of the particles with each other Porosity: the relative amount and size of voids (air space) Hardness: resistance to penetration - influenced by structure and water content. Rock content, type, and condition (bedrock, fractured, rounded alluvial) Mottling: the oxidation and reduction of iron under anaerobic conditions and is an indicator of poor drainage Effective Rooting Depth (ERD) Estimate Total Available Water (TAW)
Soil Textural Classes
High TAW Low Aeration Very Plastic Low TAW Low aeration Hard, compact Broad particle and pore size distribution
Massive (no Peds) Soil Profile Scale inches Sandy (no Peds)
Soil Structure is influenced by: Texture (finer particles tendency to create finer pores need a wide range) Organic matter content (more glues - good) Biological activity (more larger pores - good) Chemistry (calcium > 60% of CEC increases aggregation; magnesium & sodium degrade)
Soil Structure influences: Water holding capacity Total Available Water Lateral and capillary movement of water within the soil Aeration air flow to roots Hardness penetrability by roots Soil Water Drainage
Mottling and Gleying Soil rust mottling is caused by anaerobic conditions that encourages soil microorganisms to use iron oxides and thereby reduce iron followed by aeration that causes oxidation of iron. Reduced iron is gray (gleyed) and oxidized iron is orange. Mottling and gleying are very strong indicators of poor soil water drainage.
Soil Rating Scheme TAW in the ERD (inches of water) Soil Type Rating Management and Vine Performance Implications < 1.5 I Very low Irrigation critical; Fruit quality often good 1.5-2.5 II Low Irrigation necessary; Fruit quality good 2.5-3.5 III Moderate Irrigation desirable; Fruit quality optimal 3.5-4.5 IV Moderate High Irrigation desirable; Fruit quality optimal 4.5-6.0 V High Irrigation optional; Yields high; Quality? 6.0-8.0 VI Very high Irrigation unnecessary; Quality? > 8.0 VII Excessive Not suitable for premium winegrape production From: Alfred Cass and Daniel Roberts
Tillage: Why, how and with what? Deep tillage is used to loosen the subsoil to allow for roots to exploit subsoil. The depth of the tillage will frequently define the future rootzone. The impact of tillage will last for about 3 to 4 years. After that the soil has recongealed to nearly its original hardness. Paul R. Paul Anamosa, R. Anamosa, Ph.D. Vineyard PhD - Vineyard Soil Technologies Soil Technologies 707 255-2176
Depth Very low drainage Low drainage Too Low Questionable Undesirable Soil Structure Root density Scale in inches and feet. Colors Visible Free Color Texture Rock Plasticity Mottles depend on light conditions Hardness Type pores lime Row Track Mid in. Profile No: 16 Duplex Dark Grayish Brown Plastic Loam ERD (in.): 20 Dark Grayish Brown 10 % < 1 inch Loam Friable Granular Moderate Many No No Many Few Few Rounded alluvial 20 31 Grayish Brown Light clay 5 % < 1 inch Rounded alluvial Hard Massive Very High Few No No Few Few Few 41 53 Grayish Brown Dark Yellowish Brown Medium clay Sandy clay 10 % < 1 inch Rounded alluvial 10 % < 1 inch Rounded alluvial Hard Massive Very High No No No Few Few Zero Hard Massive High No 20 % Orange No Zero Zero Zero
Depth Very low drainage Low drainage Too Low Questionable Undesirable Soil Structure Scale in inches and feet. Colors depend on Visible Free Color Texture Rock Plasticity Mottles light conditions Hardness Type pores lime Root density in. Profile No: 4 Dark Yellowish Brown Sandy Loam ERD (in.): 16 Dark Yellowish Brown Sandy loam 5 % < 1 inch Rounded alluvial Friable Blocky Moderate Many No No Few 16 22 Grayish Brown Loamy sand 30 % 1 to 2 inch Rounded alluvial Loose Single grain Low Few No No Few Grayish Brown Loamy sand 80 % 2 to 4 inch Rounded alluvial Loose Single grain Low Few No No Zero 50
Which implement for which soil?
Conventional Straight Shank Very ineffective. Vector force of tillage is horizontal into compacted profile. Requires repeated ripping at different directions, which causes destruction and pulverization of surface soil structure due to repeated passes. Does not create uniform rootzone. Some vines feel one rip, intersection of two rips, intersection of three rips, and some are where the soil was not ripped at all.
Winged Shank Vector force is up. Lifts soil up and drops it off of the back. Loosens but does not compress or pulverize soil structure
Ripped to 24 with Winged Shank on 6 ft. centers Sine curve
Ripped to 30 with Winged tine on 4 ft. centers Paul R. Paul Anamosa, R. Anamosa, Ph.D. Vineyard Ph.D - Vineyard Soil Technologies Soil Technologies 707 255-2176
Mould-board Plow Mixes and inverts soil. Overworks aggregates and causes structural degradation. Brings low fertility and possibly toxic material subsoil (Na, Cl, B, Al) to top. Disperses nutrients that are naturally concentrated near surface: organic matter, phosphorus, nitrogen.
What tine is it? Straight shank should be used on land that has slightly fractured bedrock or very hard soil such as a duripan or cementation within the deep tillage zone. A Winged shank will skip across these layers. Winged shank should be used on all other soils: clayey, deep, rounded rock, etc.
Dual winged shanks to rip row middles Power constraints will usually limit depth to 24 to 30. Loosens vehicle compaction Increase uniformity of Effective Rooting Depth Till alternate rows to avoid extreme root pruning and decreased vigor. Vines bounce back quickly because they now have fresh looser soil in which to grow.
How wet should a soil be to till?
Very Highly Plastic Clay Very highly plastic clay will deform and compress upon application of a sheer or compressional stress. The compression causes the removal of air pores. Soil becomes more dense. If wetter than the plastic limit, the soil will become puddled like modeling clay. Puddled soils have many fewer air pores, become hard even when moist, restrict root penetration, and restrict water and air drainage. Great for rice and the lining of reservoirs. Thus soil must be dryer than the plastic limit in order to till it effectively. Soil dryer than the plastic limit is brittle.
Very Highly Plastic Clay Management Rice farmers puddle their soils to prevent water from leaking out the bottom of their rice paddies. Drying plastic clays sufficient to be effectively ripped is typically very difficult for depths below 18 to 24. Monitoring the soil moisture prior to deep tillage will be imperative. Consider a deep rooted winter cover crop of safflower, barley, triticale, etc. Till with a winged shank to get vector force up.
Same soil before and after puddling 2006 2011
Summary: Soil physical analysis is just as important as soil chemical analysis. It requires a person trained in soil morphological descriptions to do it right. The impact of the changes in soil texture, structure, and rock content across the landscape can be quantified into the soil s total availability water with depth. The TAW can then be used to define block boundaries and decide upon the depth and implement for tillage. The choice of tillage implement is dependent on soil properties, and the timing of the tillage should be dependent on the soil moisture content (plasticity).
Topsoil (where nutrients are taken up) - Layer 1 Upper subsoil (where vine roots will reside) - Layer 2 Lower subsoil (below root zone where toxic elements frequently accumulate) - Layer 3 Soil sampling procedure
Sufficient Levels of Available Nutrients Assumes that soil nutrients extracted with specific extractants can measure bio-availability of that nutrient for an entire season. Assumes cation ratios are of less importance than total or bio-available concentrations. Many bio-availability extractants have been developed since 1960 s. Many are geographically regional due to other over-riding soil characteristics (soil ph, soil mineralogy). Example Phosphorus: West: Olsen (soil ph > 6.5) Mid-west: Bray (soil ph < 6.5) Southeast: Melich I, II, III (soil ph < 6.5) and highly weathered Fe and Al soils. Requires that user know if bio-available test is appropriate (Bray or Olsen Phosphorus; or hot or cold water Boron). Requires strong soil chemistry and physics background to understand interactions (impacts of low or high ph, free lime. Still soil based and not plant based.
Sufficient Levels of Available Nutrients (SLAN) Bio-availability over long-term ( 6 month season) is very difficult to determine with a 5 minute extraction. Still used to determine soil fertility status. Useful to recommend potential pre-plant applications especially lime, gypsum and phosphorus. Provides good ball-park estimates of bioavailability. Must know critical value ranges for each method.
Chemical hazards that will impact or preclude the production of grapes Very high or very low ph Aluminum toxicity Boron toxicity Excessive magnesium Nickel toxicity Elevated Electrical Conductivity (EC) Sodium toxicity and high SAR Chloride toxicity
Impact of soil ph on Aluminum concentrations Toxicities start about 250 to 300 ppm.
Grape Soil Boron Critical Values Condition Hot Water Saturated Paste Extract mg / kg (ppm) Deficient 0.0-0.20 0.0-0.40 Adequate 0.20-1.5 0.40-2.5 Toxic > 1.5 > 2.50
How to put it together into vineyard design Create blocks to compartmentalize those properties that influence vine growth Prioritize by greatest influence: Water holding capacity (texture, structure, rock) Organic matter (nitrogen) Hard pans & obstacles to root zone depth Soil chemistry ph, magnesium, phosphorus etc
Amendment Applications Methods Apply Lime, Gypsum and Compost prior to deep tillage for best soil incorporation. Apply macro-nutrients through the drip to the soil: N, P, K, Ca, Mg Apply micro-nutrients foliarly: Zn, B, Cu, Mn, Mo Mg and P can be added foliarly (MgSO 4, MgPO 4, KPO 4 ) if not very deficient; add to soil if very deficient. Foliar applications can not add enough if the nutrient is very deficient. Paul R. R. Anamosa, Ph.D.. Vineyard Soil Technologies 707255-2176 225-2898
Tabel A5 Block design parameters. Tillage Spacing Row Orientation Block Acres Variety Rootstock Depth (inches) Row x Vine (ft) degrees C1 4.22 TBD* 101-14 24 6 x 5 45/225 C2 7.91 TBD 101-14 24 6 x 5 45/225 C3 6.22 TBD 420A 30 6 x 5 45/225 G 1.55 TBD 3309C 24 terrace x 5 Terraced H 3.81 TBD 3309C 24 terrace x 5 Terraced I-1 (west) 0.80 TBD 101-14 24 terrace x 5 Terraced I-2 (east) 0.40 TBD 3309C 30 terrace x 5 Terraced J1 4.30 TBD 101-14 30 6 x 5 45/225 J2 3.44 TBD 101-14 30 6 x 5 45/225 * TBD - To be d 32.65 Total Table A6 Vineyard Blocks tillage and amendment chart Gypsum Compost Phosphorus Potassium Block Acres Tons/acre Tons/acre oz/vine 11-62-0 oz/vine K 2 SO 4 C1 4.22 10 5 3 2 C2 7.91 10 5 3 2 C3 6.22 none 3 2 none G 1.55 4 5 2 none H 3.81 10 south; 3 north 5 2 2 south I-1 (west) 0.80 10 5 3 3 I-2 (east) 0.40 0 5 0 0 J1 4.30 5 5 2 2 J2 3.44 8 5 3 2 32.65
Soil Assessment: Is it worth it! Typically $500 - $1500 per acre for a vineyard that will cost $30,000 to $50,000 per acre to install (2% to 3% of establishment cost).