Civil Engineering Highway Engineering Comprehensive Theory with Solved Examples and Practice Questions Publications
Publications MADE EASY Publications Corporate Office: 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metro Station), New Delhi-110016 E-mail: infomep@madeeasy.in Contact: 011-45124660, 8860378007 Visit us at: www.madeeasypublications.org Highway Engineering Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications. All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the above mentioned publisher of this book. First Edition: 2015 Second Edition (Revised and Updated): 2016 All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission from the publisher.
Preface This book was motivated by the desire to further the evolution of a concise book on Highway Engineering. Keeping in focus the importance of this subject in GATE and ESE, we have done a proper study and thereafter developed the content of the book accordingly. This edition has an expanded discussion of all relevant topics in the subject. Initially, we compiled the perceptions of our students on their problems in GATE and ESE while dealing with the questions from this subject. We identified their various problems like- lack of fundamentals of the subject, difficulty in solving simple solutions, shortage of a complete study package, etc. These strengthened our determination to present a complete edition of Highway Engineering textbook. The book addresses all the requirements of the students, i.e. comprehensive coverage of theory, fundamental concepts, objective type problems and conventional problems, articulated in a lucid language. The concise presentation will help the readers grasp the concepts with clarity and apply them with ease to solve problems quickly. The books not only covers the entire syllabus of GATE and ESE, but also addresses the need of many other competitive examinations. Topics like Highway Development and Planning, Geometric Design of Highway, Traffic Engineering, Highway Materials, Pavement Designs, Highway Construction, Highway Maintenance are given full coverage in line with our research on their importance in competitive examinations. We have put in our sincere efforts to present elaborate solutions for various problems, different problem solving methodology, some useful quick techniques to save time while attempting MCQs without compromising the accuracy of answers. A summary of important points to remember is added at the end of each topic. For the convenience of readers, points to remember are specifically highlighted in the form of a note- both in theory as well as solved examples. At the end of each chapter, sets of practice question are given with their keys, that will allow the readers to evaluate their understanding of the topics and sharpen their problem solving skills. Our team has made their best efforts to remove all possible errors of any kind. Nonetheless, we would highly appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing, calculation and conceptual error. It is impossible to thank all the individuals who helped us, but we would like to sincerely thank all the co-authors, editors and reviewers for putting in their efforts to publish this book. We also express our thanks to MADE EASY publications for completing and publishing the book on time. With Best Wishes B. Singh CMD, MADE EASY
Contents Highway Engineering Chapter 1 Introduction... 1 1.1 Role of Transportation... 1 1.2 Different Modes of Transportation... 1 1.3 Roadways or Highways... 1 1.4 Characteristics of Road Transport... 2 1.5 Importance of Roads in India... 2 1.6 Classification of Rural Roads... 2 1.7 Classification of Urban Roads... 2 1.8 Scope of Highway Engineering... 2 Chapter 2 Highway Development and Planning...4 2.1 Development of Roads... 4 2.1.1 Roman Roads... 4 2.1.2 Tresaguet Construction... 5 2.1.3 Telford Construction... 5 2.1.4 Metcalf Construction... 5 2.1.5 Macadam Construction... 6 2.1.6 Water Bound Macadam (WBM)... 6 2.2 Modern Road Development In India... 7 2.2.1 Recommendations Made by Jayakar Committee... 7 2.2.2 Accepted Recommendations of Jayakar Committee... 7 2.2.3 Objectives of Indian Road Congress... 7 2.2.4 First 20 year Road Plan (Nagpur Road Plan) (1943-63)... 7 2.2.5 Second 20 year Road Plan (Bombay Road Plan) (1961-81)... 8 2.2.6 Third 20 Year Road Plan (Lucknow Road... Plan) (1981-2001)... 9 2.3 Road Patterns...10 2.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Locations...11 2.4.1 Map Study...11 2.4.2 Reconnaissance...11 2.4.3 Preliminary Survey...12 2.4.4 Final Location and Detailed Survey...12 2.5 National Highway Development Program (NHDP)....12 2.6 Concept of Saturation System or Maximum Utility System...13 Objective Brain Teaser...15 Conventional Practice Question...16 Chapter 3 Geometric Design of Highway...17 3.1 Factors Controlling Geometric Design...17 3.1.1 Topography or Terrain...17 3.1.2 Design Speed...18 3.1.3 Road User Characteristics...19 3.1.4 Vehicular Characteristic...20 3.1.5 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity...20 3.2 Basic Consideration for the Design of Highway... 21 3.3 Cross Sectional Element...22 3.3.1 Right of Way...22 3.3.2 Width of Formation...23 3.3.3 Road Margins...24 3.3.4 Median...26 3.3.5 Kerb...26 3.3.6 Width of Pavement or Carriageway...27 (iv)
3.3.7 Camber or Cross Slope...28 3.3.8 Pavement Characteristics...29 3.4 Sight Distance...30 3.4.1 Stopping Sight Distance...31 3.4.2 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)...34 3.4.3 Sight Distance at Intersection...38 3.4.4 Intermediate Sight Distance...38 3.5 Curve...39 3.5.1 Advantages of Curves...39 3.5.2 Factor Affecting the Design of Curves...39 3.5.3 Type of Curves...39 3.6 Design of Horizontal Alignment...40 3.6.1 Stability Analysis on Horizontal Curv without Superelevation...40 3.6.2 Impact Factor...42 3.6.3 Superelevation...42 3.6.4 Design of Superelevation...48 3.6.5 Radii of Horizontal Curve...49 3.6.6 Extrawidening...50 3.6.7 Curve Resistance for Turning Vehicle...51 3.6.8 Grade Compensation at Curves on Hill... Roads...51 3.7 Transition Curves...52 2.2.3 Objectives of Indian Road Congress... 7 3.7.1 Different Types of Transition Curves...52 3.7.2 Length of Transition Curve...53 3.7.3 Design Steps of Horizontal Transition Curve Length...54 3.7.4 Setting out of Transition Curve...54 3.8 Set Back Distance...57 3.9 Vertical Alignment...61 3.9.1 Summit Curve...62 3.9.2 Valley Curve or Sag Curve...65 Objective Brain Teaser...75 Conventional Practice Questions...78 Chapter 4 Traffic Engineering...79 4.1 Function of Traffic Engineering...79 4.2 Traffic Characteristics...79 4.2.1 Road User Characteristics...79 4.2.2 Vehicular Characteristics...80 4.3 Traffic studies and Analysis...82 4.3.1 Traffic Volume Study...83 4.3.2 Traffic Speed Studies...85 4.3.3 Origin and Destination Studies...93 4.3.4 Traffic Flow Characteristics and Studies...95 4.3.5 Traffic Capacity Studies...96 4.3.6 Parking Studies... 100 4.3.7 Accident Studies... 102 4.4 Traffic Control Device... 105 4.4.1 Traffic Signs... 106 4.4.2 Traffic Signals... 109 4.4.3 Methods of Signal Designing... 114 4.5 Intersection... 117 4.5.1 Types of Intersection... 118 4.6 Traffic Rotaries... 121 4.6.1 Shape of Rotary Island... 122 4.6.2 Design Speed of Rotary... 122 4.6.3 Radius of Curve at Entry... 122 4.6.4 Radius of Curve at Exit... 122 4.6.5 Radius of Central Traffic Island... 122 4.6.6 Width of Weaving Section... 123 4.6.7 Weaving Length... 123 4.6.8 Entry and Exit Angles... 123 4.6.9 Capacity of the Rotary... 123 Objective Brain Teaser... 133 Conventional Practice Questions... 136 Chapter 5 Highway Materials...137 5.1 Soil... 137 5.2 Subgrade Soil... 137 5.2.1 Subgrade Soil Strength... 137 5.2.2 Evaluation of Soil Strength... 138 5.3 Plate Bearing Test... 138 5.3.1 Procedure of Plate Bearing Test... 138 5.3.2 Correction for Worst Sub-grade Moisture.138 5.3.3 Correction for Size of Plates... 139 5.4 California Bearing Ratio Test... 140 (v)
5.4.1 Test Procedure... 140 5.4.2 Correction in Load Penetration Curve... 141 5.5 Aggregates... 141 5.5.1 Desirable Properties of Road Aggregates. 141 5.5.2 Test for Road Aggregates... 143 5.6 Bitumen... 148 5.6.1 Cutback Bitumen... 148 5.6.2 Bitumen Emulsion... 148 5.6.3 Manufacturing of Bitumen... 148 5.6.4 Tests of Bitumen... 149 5.7 TAR... 152 5.8 Mix Design... 152 5.8.1 Objective of Mix Design... 152 5.8.2 Constituent of a Mix... 152 5.8.3 Types of Mix... 152 5.8.4 Different Layers in a Pavement... 153 5.8.5 Steps in Mix Design... 153 5.9 Marshall Mix Design... 153 5.9.1 Step Involved in the Preparation of... Specimen... 153 5.9.2 Different Properties of Mix... 154 5.9.3 Marshall Stability and Flow... 155 5.9.4 Stability Correction... 156 5.9.5 Graphical Plots... 156 5.9.6 Optimum Bitumen Content... 156 5.10 Modified Hubbard-Field Method of Bituminous Mix Design... 159 5.11 Hveem Method of Bituminous Mix Design... 160 Objective Brain Teaser... 163 Conventional Practice Question... 166 Chapter 6 Pavement Design...167 6.1 Types of Pavement Structure... 167 6.1.1 Flexible Pavement... 167 6.1.2 Rigid Pavement... 167 6.1.3 Semi Rigid Pavement... 168 6.2 Functions of Pavement Components... 168 6.3 Design Factors... 168 6.4 Design of Flexible Pavement... 172 6.4.1 Group Index Method... 174 6.4.2 California Bearing Ratio Method... 175 6.4.3 Modified CBR Method... 177 6.4.4 California Resistance Value Method... 179 6.4.5 Triaxial Test Method... 181 6.4.6 Mcleod Method... 182 6.4.7 Burmister Method... 183 6.5 Design of Rigid Pavement... 186 6.5.1 Factors Affecting Design... 186 6.5.2 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction... 187 6.5.3 Relative Stiffness of slab to subgrade... 187 6.5.4 Critical Load Positions... 188 6.5.5 Equivalent Radius of Resisting Section.. 188 6.5.6 Wheel Load Stresses - Westergaard s Stress Equations... 189 6.5.7 Temperature Stresses... 190 6.5.8 Nature of Stresses... 191 6.5.9 Combination of stresses... 191 6.5.10 Critical Cases of Stress Combination... 192 6.6 Design of Joint... 192 6.6.1 Requirements of Joint... 192 6.6.2 Types of Joints... 193 6.6.3 Tie Bar... 195 6.6.4 Dowel Bar... 196 Objective Brain Teaser... 206 Conventional Practice Questions... 210 Chapter 7 Highway Construction...211 7.1 Pavement Types... 211 7.2 Earthwork... 211 7.3 Excavation... 212 7.3.1 Classification of Excavation... 212 7.3.2 Excavation Equipment... 212 7.4 Embankment... 213 7.4.1 Selection and Placement of Materials in... Embankment and Subgrades... 213 7.4.2 Design Elements in Highway... Embankments... 214 7.4.3 Construction of Embankment... 214 7.4.4 Preparation of Subgrade... 214 (vi)
7.4.5 Compacting Equipment... 215 7.5 Types of Highway Construction... 215 7.5.1 Construction of Earth Roads... 215 7.5.2 Construction of Gravel Roads... 216 7.5.3 Construction of Water Bound Macadam... Roads... 217 7.5.4 Construction of Bituminous Pavements.218 7.5.5 Construction of cement concrete... pavements... 221 Objective Brain Teaser... 224 Chapter 8 Highway Maintenance...225 8.1 General Causes of Pavement Failures... 225 8.2 Maintenance of Highway... 225 8.3 Basic Maintenance Objective... 225 8.4 Failure in Flexible Pavement... 226 8.4.1 Failures in Base Course... 226 8.4.2 Types of Defect in Flexible Pavement... 226 8.4.3 Methods for Repairing the Defects... 230 8.4.4 Special Repairs in Flexible Pavement... 231 8.5 Failure in Rigid Pavement... 232 8.5.1 Deficiency of Pavement Materials... 232 8.5.2 Structural Inadequacy of the Pavement... System... 233 8.5.3 Typical Rigid Pavement Failure... 233 8.5.4 Special Repair of Rigid Pavement... 234 8.6 Pavement Evaluation... 234 8.6.1 Structural Evaluation of Pavement... 234 8.6.2 Evaluation of Pavement Surface Condition...234 8.7 Strengthening of Existing Pavement... 235 8.7.1 Types of Overlay... 235 8.7.2 Design of Overlay... 235 8.8 Benkelman Beam Deflection Method... 235 8.8.1 Principle of Overlay Design... 235 8.8.2 Procedure of Benkelman Beam Deflection. Method... 236 8.9 Flexible Overlay over Flexible Pavement... 237 8.9.1 Analysis of Data for Overlay Design... 237 8.9.2 Overlay Thickness Design... 237 8.10 Flexible Overlay over Rigid Pavement... 239 8.11 Rigid Overlay over Rigid Pavement... 239 8.12 Rigid Overlay Over Existing Flexible Pavement.240 Objective Brain Teaser... 241 Conventional Practice Question... 242 (vii)