Fires, fire safety and trends.

Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe, 66, No. 4, 2013, pp. 219 223 Fires, fire safety and trends. Regulations, standards and the role of flame retardancy J. H. Troitzsc Fire and Environment Protection Service FEPS, Wiesbaden Selected from International Polymer Science and Technology, 40, No. 4, 2012, reference GK 13/04/219; transl. serial no. 17020 Translated by M. Grange Most fire catastrophes occur because basic fire safety standards are ignored or are too low for specific applications. In building, there is a European classification and testing system, which ensures that fire safety requirements are met. It is also part of the Construction Products Regulation, which allows the free circulation of goods by CE marking. The fire tests are quite demanding and are the basis for enforcing the national fire regulations. In transportation, a new European standard, EN 45545, has been developed to classify and test the reaction to fire of products used in railways. High-level fire performance, smoke and toxicity requirements have to be met, thus restricting the use of certain products. For ships, the Fire Test Procedures FTP Code sets similar high-level fire safety objectives. For automobiles and buses, however, the flammability requirements for materials are quite low. This has been confirmed in some catastrophic bus fires. A study has shown that using the demanding fire safety standards of railways could avoid such devastating fires. In electrical engineering and electronics (E + E), flammability tests are used to prevent ignition and flame propagation of E + E products. To improve the fire safety of consumer and office electronics, the IEC had considered introducing fire hazard requirements for external ignition sources. However, this was rejected by the IEC member countries following a campaign against flame retardants, which would be necessary to provide the required fire safety levels. Such campaigns may lead to a reduction in fire safety at the outbreak of a fire. FIRE DISASTERS In the past, as well as in more recent times, there have been many catastrophic fires involving large numbers of fatalities. All of these fires were caused by small ignition sources, such as short circuits, candles, matches or glowing cigarettes, which often came into contact with highly flammable materials that failed to meet safety standards. Many fires, and the associated deaths, could have been avoided if these products, particularly insulating foams and upholstery, had incorporated flame retardants. Below is a brief reminder of some of the catastrophic fires that have occurred. On 20 February 2003, 100 people were killed and 230 injured in a fire at The Station nightclub in Rhode Island, Maine, USA [1]. The fire broke out during a performance by a rock band, who set off pyrotechnics on stage. The acoustic foam that was fitted above and behind the stage was ignited by flying sparks. The flames spread extremely rapidly. The building had no sprinkler system. The foam materials used for sound insulation may have been the cheapest available polyurethane foams designed for packaging purposes, which are obviously not flame resistant and therefore should not be used in buildings. Recently, on 27 January 2013, there was an even more deadly fire in a nightclub in Santa Maria, Brazil, which left 237 dead and 143 injured [2]. According to eyewitnesses, this fire had similar causes. Members of a band lit a flare or firework on the stage and sparks ignited the acoustic foam in the ceiling. The reason for the high death toll was the lack of emergency exits, fire alarms, fire extinguishers and sprinkler systems. 2013 Smithers Rapra Technology T/1

As well as building fires, there are also repeated occurrences of catastrophic fires on buses and coaches. On 4 November 2008, a German coach caught fire on the autobahn near Hanover. Twenty passengers died [3]. Survivors told the authorities that the fire broke out in the on-board toilet. When the door was opened, flames shot out and fire quickly engulfed the vehicle. Other bus and coach fires in Scandinavia and, just recently, in China have made the public more aware of the need for greater fire safety. How can the number of these fire disasters be reduced? This can be achieved by the compulsory introduction of the stringent provisions that already exist for high fire safety classes. Materials and products in the construction sector (interior claddings, thermal insulation materials, roofs, floor coverings), as well as smoke alarms and sprinkler systems, have to be tested. In other sectors, such as transport, there are few requirements relating to products for road vehicles, such as cars and buses, in contrast to the strict fire safety regulations for trains, ships and aircraft. To avoid similar fire disasters in future, there must be adequate adoption of this level of fire safety. The next section will give an overview of the current status and trends in fire safety in Europe for the most important sectors of construction, transport and the electrical and electronic industry (E + E). FIRE SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY In the European Union, it is the job of the EC Commission to harmonise the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the 27 Member States. The goal is a single European market [4]. The Construction Products Directive (CPD) (89/106/EC) [5] contains the following four main elements: A system of harmonised technical specifications An agreed system of attestation of conformity for each product family A framework of notified bodies The CE marking of products. The CE marking of products for the construction industry is a declaration by the manufacturer that the products meet certain safety requirements. The general safety requirements are a set of essential characteristics that each product must satisfy and these characteristics are given in the product s harmonised standard. Six essential requirements need to be addressed and satisfied, when relevant, before the product can be marketed: Mechanical resistance and stability Safety in the case of fire Hygiene, health and the environment Safety in use Protection against noise Energy economy and heat retention. The Construction Products Directive (CPD) was recently replaced by the Construction Products Regulation (CPR) [6], with the aim of simplification, sustainability and simplified CE marking. The CPR has already entered into force; however, the main parts of its substantial articles will apply from 1 July 2013. Until that date, the CPD remains in force. The six main requirements of the CPD are now referred to as basic requirements. The sustainable use of natural resources has been introduced as additional basic requirement 7. Within the framework of essential requirement no. 2 safety in the case of fire a European classification system has been developed, the Euroclasses, to harmonise the behaviour of construction materials in a fire. The system is based on a series of fire test methods. The CPR is not intended to unify the regulations. The national fire safety regulations of the individual Member States and the level of fire safety specified therein are therefore not subject to European harmonisation but remain the responsibility of the Member States. The Euroclasses are the classification system that has been introduced in the European Union [7]. They apply to walls and ceilings ( surface products ), floor coverings, pipes, pipe insulation, cables and roofing. Classification of the reaction to fire is compulsory for CE marking and is shown in Table 1 for surface products. Requirements for an additional, voluntary classification for smoke formation and dripping characteristics were also laid down. If necessary, these criteria may be adopted by the individual Member States in their national regulations. There are no classification requirements for the toxicity of fumes from products for the construction industry. The main test methods used for classifying the reaction to fire of products for the construction industry according to Euroclasses for surface products and floor coverings are compiled in Table 2. These European regulations relating to fire testing were all published as EN standards in 2002 and revised in 2010. They have been adopted Table 1. Classification of surface products in fire classes Euroclasses Contribution to fire A1 none A2 no significant contribution B very limited C limited D acceptable E acceptable reaction to fire F no performance determined T/2 International Polymer Science and Technology, Vol. 40, No. 10, 2013

Table 2. Regulations for reaction to fire of surface products and floor coverings Test methods Standard Non-combustibility oven test EN ISO 1182 Calorific value (PCS bomb calorimeter) EN ISO 1716 Single burning item (SBI) test EN 13823 Single flame source test EN ISO 11925-2 Radiant panel test EN ISO 9239-1 Reaction to fire test for floor coverings Selection of standard substrates EN 13238 Classification EN 13501-1 as national standards (DIN EN, BS EN, NF EN etc.) by the EU Member States and the relevant national standards prior to the introduction of the European standards have been withdrawn. As a prerequisite for CE marking, all of the requirements specified in the European product criteria must be met in accordance with the European standards on reaction to fire. If no European standard exists for a specific application, the old national standards remain applicable but CE marking is not possible. The most important tests for evaluating the reaction to fire of construction products are: EN 13823 Single Burning Item (SBI) Test (fire testing of a single item) is the most important test method for the classification of surface products [8]. The potential contribution of a product to the spread of a fire is determined according to this standard. It involves simulating a situation in which a single item is burning in a corner of the room close to the product to be tested. This test is relevant to classes A1, A2, B, C and D. Surface products containing low-flammability foams (expanded and extruded polystyrene, rigid polyurethane foams) can achieve class B, which corresponds to a very high fire safety level (very limited contribution to the spread of a fire) (Figure 1). The single-flame source test according to EN ISO 11925-2 is used to determine the flammability of a product when exposed to a small flame [9]. Construction materials in class E are investigated with this test. Products to be tested by the SBI test for classes A2, B, C and D must first pass the test for class E. The single-flame source test is based on the German DIN single-flame source test for testing German construction products according to DIN 4102 Part 1 class B2. Variants of this test method were also in use as national standards in other EU Member States (e.g. Italy). In some EU Member States, such as Austria and Germany, the use of class E construction products is compulsory. standard EN 45545, Railway applications Fire protection on railway vehicles. This standard is divided into seven parts. Part 2, Requirements for fire behaviour of materials and components [10], contains very strict fire protection requirements and tests, which will surely represent the state of the art in most parts of the world in the future. Based on the stringent requirements for critical heat flux in the ISO 5658-2 Flame Propagation test (Figure 2) and the maximum average heat release rate in the ISO 5660-1 Cone Calorimeter test (Figure 3), the value for smoke obscuration and the conventional toxicity index tested in a smoke chamber according to ISO 5659-2, new materials and components are urgently needed. For ships, the International Maritime Organisation IMO has developed international regulations and standards for the safety of seagoing vessels, which apply worldwide. The IMO regulations for fire safety testing (Fire Test Procedures, FTP) contain both the safety requirements and the test methods [11]. The main test methods for fire behaviour correspond to the methods discussed above for railways. However, criteria and classification of the materials and components are different. Figure 1. Single burning item test (source: MPA NW) TRANSPORT: TRAINS, SHIPS AND BUSES From 2013, materials and components for railway vehicles will be tested and classified according to the new European Figure 2. Flame propagation test (source: Exova Warringtonfire) 2013 Smithers Rapra Technology T/3

[13], the fire safety requirements are also very low: in addition to FMVSS 302, a further Bunsen burner test is specified for curtains and blinds in a vertical position and a dripping test for materials used in the roof. In the future, however, electric vehicles with their cables, electrical and electronic components, particularly the batteries, and compact assemblies with their increased use of plastics should demand higher levels of fire safety. Investigations into the fire behaviour of materials and components meeting the requirements of the new European rail standard EN 45545 show that bus fires can be avoided or dramatically reduced [14]. Figure 3. Cone calorimeter test (source: Uclan) Figure 4. GWIT glow-wire test (source: Clariant) In the case of ships and trains, the use of materials and components that contain halogenated compounds or form significant quantities of CO, CO 2, SO 2, NO x and HCN during combustion is excluded for many applications, particularly by the toxicity requirements. Only extremely small quantities of HCl, HBr and HF forming during decomposition are tolerated. For road vehicles, the fire behaviour requirements worldwide are very low (FMVSS 302: a horizontal specimen is exposed to a flame from a Bunsen burner) [12]. No major revisions to the regulations are planned in the short term. In European Directive 95/28/EC, which regulates the burning behaviour of materials used in buses ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SECTOR (E + E) Safety requirements, including fire safety, are laid down in European Directives for the E + E sector in general as the basis for CE marking. Other fire safety certificates in common international use include the UL mark from Underwriters Laboratories and the German VDE mark. The dominant flame retardancy test in the E + E sector is the UL 94 test, in which horizontally (UL 94 HB) and vertically (UL 94 5VA, 5VB, V0, V1, V2) positioned samples are exposed to a Bunsen burner flame [15]. These standards are valid worldwide for virtually all E + E applications. For domestic appliances in Europe, EN 60335-1 Safety of household and similar electrical appliances, paragraph 30, lays down requirements for Resistance to heat and fire. The most important fire test for appliances in Europe, and increasingly also in Asia, is the glow wire test. The glow wire test according to EN 60695-2 is divided into four sections 10 to 13 [16]. Section 10 describes the test apparatus and sections 11 13 the requirements for fire behaviour. In EN 60335-1, for unattended appliances > 0.2 A, the requirements to IEC 60695-2-11 to 13 are as follows: - IEC/EN 60695-2-11 Flammability test for end products (GWT) 750 C 2 s - if > 2 s Needle flame test to IEC 60695-11-5 or Class V0 or V1 to IEC 60695-11-10 - IEC/EN 60695-2-12 Flammability test for materials (GWFI) 850 C < 30 s - IEC/EN 60695-2-13 Ignitability test for materials (GWIT) 775 C < 5 s (Figure 4) In the E + E sector, there are no significant new developments to report. However, there have been changes resulting from the introduction of regulations for external ignition sources in the case of electronic appliances for private use and for offices. External ignition sources for consumer electronic and IT equipment are described in the technical specification IEC/TS 62441 Accidentally caused candle flame T/4 International Polymer Science and Technology, Vol. 40, No. 10, 2013

ignition [17], and are to be included in the standard 60065. The technical specification describes fire risks from external ignition sources and specifies a UL 94 V1 rating for materials (> 300 g). In 2010, however, its introduction was rejected in an IEC vote. This was the result of a campaign by American NGO activists against flame retardants, which are necessary to meet the specification for V1. At the same time, however, the external ignition requirements were included in the corresponding European standard EN 60065. The new revised standard IEC 62368-1 for audio/ video, information and communication technology equipment [18] also takes external ignition sources into account. IEC 62368 merges the standards IEC 60065 for consumer electronic equipment and IEC 60950-1 for IT equipment and is intended to replace these two standards. However, the aforementioned activists were once again successful with a No vote. The introduction of external ignition sources into the standard IEC 62368-1 was therefore rejected in May 2012. CONCLUSIONS Fire disasters can be reduced by means of stringent fire safety regulations and through the use of materials and components with high fire safety. In our modern world, prosperity in the industrialised nations means that we are surrounded by large numbers of flammable products, resulting in a real risk of fire. The best way to reduce both the number of deaths and the amount of fire damage is to introduce fire safety measures in the home and the work environment, for example the installation of smoke alarms and the use of flame retardant plastics. This applies especially to foams for building insulation, mattresses and upholstered furniture in the home and seat upholstery in the transport sector. A high fire safety standard in televisions, domestic appliances and electronic office equipment makes a major contribution to reducing the number of fires. Not least, the installation of sprinkler systems is essential to prevent fires in high risk areas. All of these measures combined make a significant contribution to a safer world. To protect lives, property and the environment from fires, whether in the early stages or fully developed, fire regulations worldwide focus on the start of a fire as at this point it is still possible to prevent or delay its spread. Many of these regulations refer to standards which cover the basic parameters of ignition and flame propagation for the sectors of construction, transport and E + E equipment. The systematic rejection of test methods for flammability and ignition because of the use of flame retardants ignores all fire safety measures that are aimed at preventing fires from breaking out. The number of fires started by small-flame ignition sources will therefore rise considerably, thus exposing the population to an increased risk of fires resulting in more fatalities and greater fire damage. REFERENCES 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/the_station_ nightclub_fire. 2. http://www.flameretardants-online.com/web/ en/news/index.htm?showid=368 3. http://www.bam.de/de/service/ publikationen/publikationen_medien/ jahresberichte/jb_2009. pdf, p. 65 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/construction_ Products_Directive 5. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/lexuriserv/lexuriserv. o?uri=celex:31989l0106:en:html 6. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/lexuriserv/lexuriserv. do?uri=oj:l:2011:088:0005:01:en:html 7. EN 13501-1:2007+A1:2009. Fire classification of construction products and building elements - Part 1: Classification using data from reaction to fire tests 8. EN 13823:2010. Reaction to fire tests for building products - Building products excluding floorings exposed to the thermal attack by a single burning item 9. EN ISO 11925-2:2010. Reaction to fire tests -Ignitability of products subjected to direct impingement of flame - Part 2: Single-flame source test 10. CEN/TS 45545-2:2009. Railway applications - Fire protection on railway vehicles - Part 2: Requirements for fire behaviour of materials and components 11. http://www.imo.org/mediacentre/ pressbriefings/pages/26-ftp-code.aspx 12. http://www.nhtsa.gov/cars/rules/import/ fmvss/index.html#sn302 13. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/lexuriserv/ LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1995L0028:200 70101:en:PDF 14. http://www20.vv.se/fud-resultat/ Publikationer_000501_000600/ Publikation_000597/ SP_Report_2008_41.pdf 15. http://www.ul.com/global/eng/pages/ offerings/industries/chemicals/plastics/testing/ flame/ 16. EN 60695-2-10:2001. Fire hazard testing - Part 2-10: Glowing/hot-wire based test methods; Glow-wire apparatus and common test procedure 2013 Smithers Rapra Technology T/5

EN 60695-2-11:2001. Glow-wire flammability test method for end-products EN 60695-2-12:2010. Glow-wire flammability index (GWFI) test method for materials EN 60695-2-13:2010. Glow-wire ignition temperature (GWIT) test method for materials 17. IEC/TS 62441:2006. Accidentally caused candle flame ignition for audio/video, communication and information technology equipment 18. FprEN 62368-1:2011/FprAA:2011. Audio/ video, information and communication technology equipment - Part 1: Safety requirements T/6 International Polymer Science and Technology, Vol. 40, No. 10, 2013