Table of Contents Preface... xiv Introduction... 1 Purpose and Scope... 2 Key Information... 2 1 Organization, Responsibilities, and Authority...4 Case History...7 Investigator as Liaison...8 Public Agencies...8 Private Agencies...9 Arson Task Forces and Strike Forces...11 Fire Investigator Training and Certification...11 Legal Foundations...13 Due Process...13 Authority...14 Private-Sector Investigations...14 Tools of the Profession...15 Summary...17 Review Questions...18 2 Safety... 20 Case History... 23 Incident Management System... 24 Site Safety Assessment... 25 Safety Equipment... 27 Personal Protective Equipment... 27 Bunker Coats and Trousers... 28 Coveralls... 28 Helmets and Hard Hats... 28 Gloves... 28 Turnout Boots... 29 Atmospheric Monitoring Devices... 29 Respiratory Protection... 30 Rehabilitation Facilities... 33 Hazardous Materials... 33 Biohazards... 36 Scene Safety Hazards... 36 Fire Rekindle... 38 Structural Instability... 38 Poor Illumination... 40 Improper Ventilation... 41 Lack of Perimeter Control... 41 Lack of Personal Security... 41 Lack of Animal Control... 42 Lack of Crowd Control... 43 Utility Systems... 43 Electricity... 43 Fuel Gas... 43 Water... 43 Sewage/Drainage... 45 Summary... 45 Review Questions... 46 3 Fire Dynamics: Behavior, Chemistry, and Physics... 48 Case History... 51 Physical and Chemical Changes... 52 Ignition... 53 Combustion... 53 Fire Triangle... 54 Fire Tetrahedron... 54 Products of Combustion... 55 Heat... 57 Heat and Temperature... 57 Sources of Heat Energy... 59 Chemical Heat Energy... 60 Self-Heating... 60 Electrical and Mechanical Heat Energy... 60 Heat Transmission... 61 Conduction... 62 Convection... 63 Radiation... 63 Heat of Combustion and Heat Release Rate... 65 Fuel (Reducing Agent)... 66 Gaseous Fuel... 66 Liquid Fuel... 67 Solid Fuel... 68 Oxygen (Oxidizing Agent)... 72 Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction... 74 Classifications of Fires... 76 Fire Development in a Compartment... 78 Incipient Stage... 79 Growth Stage... 80 Thermal Layering... 82 Rollover/Flameover... 84 Flashover... 84 Alternate Path... 85 Fully Developed Stage... 86 Decay Stage... 87 Consumption of Fuel... 87 Limited Ventilation... 87 Backdraft... 87 v
Factors That Affect Fire Development... 90 Fuel Types... 90 Fuel Geometry (Additional Fuels)... 90 Compartment Geometry (Volume and Ceiling Height)... 91 Ventilation Changes... 92 Thermal Properties... 93 Ambient Conditions... 93 Changing Conditions... 93 Summary... 94 Review Questions... 94 4 Explosion Dynamics... 96 Case History... 99 Mechanical Explosions... 100 Chemical Explosions... 100 Deflagrations... 101 Detonations... 101 Characterization of Explosive Damage... 101 Explosion Effects... 102 Blast Pressure Front Effect... 104 Shrapnel Fragmentation... 104 Seismic Effect... 104 Incendiary Thermal Effect... 106 Seated Explosions... 106 BLEVEs... 107 Explosives... 108 Nonseated Explosions... 109 Gas/Vapor Explosions... 109 Fuel-to-air Ratio... 109 Vapor Density... 110 Fuel-Gas Migration... 112 Flame Speed and Burning Velocity... 113 Turbulence... 114 Confining Space... 114 Ignition Source... 115 Venting... 116 Dust Explosions... 117 Summary... 118 Review Questions... 118 5 The Basics of Building Construction as it Relates to the Fire Investigator... 120 Case History... 123 Fire Resistance... 124 Building Materials... 125 Wood... 125 Masonry... 126 Concrete... 128 Steel... 130 Cast Iron... 131 Aluminum... 131 Gypsum... 132 Glass... 132 Plastic Construction Materials... 133 Artificial Laminates... 135 Basic Building Classifications... 135 Unique Construction Considerations... 135 Manufactured (Mobile) Homes... 136 Prefabricated... 137 Modular... 138 Geodesic Construction... 138 Log Homes... 138 Building Components... 139 Roof Systems... 139 Arched and Domed Roofs... 139 Roof coverings... 141 Membrane Roofs... 142 Ceiling Assemblies... 143 Wall Assemblies... 143 Lightweight Construction Materials... 144 Floor Systems... 146 Concrete Floors... 146 Steel Floor Systems... 147 Wood Floors... 147 Foundations... 148 Interior Finish... 149 Compartmentation... 149 Ventilation... 149 Concealed and Interstitial Spaces... 150 Interstitial Ceiling Spaces... 150 Utility Chases... 150 Refuse and Linen Chutes... 150 Summary... 151 Review Questions... 151 6 Building Services... 152 Case History... 155 Energy Production... 157 Environmental Systems... 158 Piped Services... 159 Electrical/Electronic Systems... 160 Transportation and Conveyance... 161 Fire Protection Systems... 163 Smoke Control and Evacuation Systems... 164 Automatic Sprinkler systems... 164 Standpipe and Hose Systems... 166 Stationary Fire Pumps... 166 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems... 167 Other Specialized Systems... 169 Security and Monitoring Systems... 169 Video Surveillance Systems... 170 Process Alarms... 170 Specialized Access Entry... 171 Summary... 171 Review Questions... 172 vi
7 Basic Electricity for the Fire Investigator... 174 Case History... 177 Basics of Electricity... 178 Electrical Current and Pressure... 178 Basic Circuits... 180 Ohm s Law... 184 Power... 186 Alternating Current... 187 Power Loss in Transmission... 190 Common Electrical Systems in Buildings... 192 Service... 192 Branch Circuits... 194 Circuit Wiring... 196 Circuit Protection... 197 Fuses... 198 Circuit Breakers... 198 Short Circuits... 199 Overloads... 199 Grounding... 200 Ground Fault Protection... 201 Energized Systems... 202 Common Electrical Events... 203 Electrical Arcs... 204 Sparks... 205 Resistance Heating... 205 Investigative Clues... 206 Summary... 207 Review Questions... 208 8 Investigative Process... 210 Case History... 213 Scientific Method... 215 Preliminary Information and Interviews... 217 Legal Rights of Entry... 219 Exigent Circumstances... 220 Consent... 221 Administrative Search Warrants... 221 Criminal Search Warrants... 222 Contractual Entry... 223 Summary... 224 Review Questions... 224 9 Scene Security... 226 Case History... 229 Protecting Evidence... 229 Establishing Perimeters... 232 Summary... 235 Review Questions... 235 10 Scene Documentation... 236 Case History... 239 Field Notes... 240 Sketches... 241 Drawings, Diagrams, and Maps... 244 Photographs... 246 Camera... 248 Lenses... 252 Depth of Field... 254 ISO Settings... 254 Lighting... 255 Photograph Storage... 256 Video Cameras... 258 Portable Audio Recorders... 259 Summary... 259 Review Questions... 259 11 Evidence Collection and Preservation... 260 Case History... 263 Collection of Physical Evidence... 266 Chain of Custody... 267 Tools and Equipment... 268 Contamination Prevention... 269 Evidence Collection Methods... 271 Glass Pieces... 272 Wood Materials... 274 Paper Materials... 275 Cigarette Evidence... 276 Electrical System Components... 276 Appliances and Equipment... 278 Ignitable-Liquid Evidence... 279 Evidence Containers... 279 Solid Debris... 280 Containers Found at the Scene... 280 Comparison Samples... 281 Adhesive Tape... 282 Objects Containing Trace Evidence... 282 Evidence Requiring Technical Expertise... 282 Summary... 283 Review Questions... 283 12 Interviews... 284 Case History... 287 Planning the Interview... 291 Conducting the Interview... 292 Documenting the Interview... 295 Evaluating Interview Information... 295 Summary... 295 Review Questions... 296 13 Fire and Explosion Scene Examination... 298 Case History... 301 Identification of Potential Evidence... 303 Exterior Examination... 305 vii
Building Utilities... 307 Building systems... 307 Interior Examination... 307 Explosion Scene Examination... 309 Scene Assessment... 309 Fire or Explosion... 310 Fuel Identification... 310 Damage Identification... 310 Preexplosion and Postexplosion Fire Damage... 313 Potential Evidence... 313 Force Vector Analysis... 315 Origin Determination... 316 Explosion Dynamics Analysis... 316 Fire Source Analysis... 316 Ignition Source Identification... 317 Summary... 317 Review Questions... 318 14 Area of Origin Determination... 320 Case History... 323 Scientific Basis of Fire Effects and Fire Patterns... 324 Exterior Fire Effects... 325 Fire Patterns... 326 Plume-Generated Patterns... 328 V-Patterns... 328 U-Shaped Patterns... 330 Hourglass Patterns... 330 Circular-Shaped Patterns... 332 Inverted Cone Patterns... 332 Hot-Gas Layer Patterns... 333 Ventilation-Generated Patterns... 334 Suppression-Generated Patterns... 335 Full-Room-Involvement Patterns... 335 Clean-Burn Patterns... 335 Pointer or Arrow Patterns... 336 Irregular Patterns on Floors... 337 Trailers... 338 Doughnut-Shaped Patterns... 338 Saddle Burns... 339 Protected Areas... 340 Fire Pattern Analysis... 341 Sequence... 342 Ventilation... 343 Movement Versus Intensity... 344 Hypothesis Development and Testing... 344 Vector Diagrams... 345 Depth of Char... 345 Depth of Calcination... 347 Arc Mapping... 347 Identifying Arc Sites... 348 Documenting and Mapping Arc sites... 348 Collecting Arcing Evidence... 349 Summary... 350 Review Questions... 350 15 Debris Examination, Removal, and Reconstruction... 352 Case History... 355 Debris Removal... 356 Excavation Locations... 356 Debris Removal Strategy... 358 Layering Process and Debris Management... 359 Scene Reconstruction... 360 Summary... 362 Review Questions... 362 16 Ignition Source, Ignition Sequence, and Cause Determination... 364 Case History... 367 Ignition Sources... 367 Heat, Sparks, Ember, or Flames from Outside, Open Fires... 369 Heat from Fuel-Fired or Fuel-Powered Equipment... 370 Heat from Welding and Cutting Equipment... 370 Heat from Gas or Liquid Fueled Equipment... 370 Heat from Solid Fuel Powered Equipment... 372 Heat from Electrical Equipment... 373 Short Circuits... 374 Resistance Heating... 375 Heat from Hot Object... 375 Heat from Explosive or Fireworks... 377 Heat from Other Open Flame, Sparks, or Smoking Materials... 377 Smoking Materials... 378 Candles... 378 Heat from Natural Sources... 378 Heat from the Sun... 379 Spontaneous Heating... 379 Lightning... 380 Static Discharge... 381 Heat Spreading from Separate Fire Sources... 382 Material First Ignited... 382 Ignition Sequence... 382 Post-Scene Investigation... 384 Collection and Organization of Investigative Information... 385 Planning the Post-Scene Investigation... 386 Analytical Methods... 386 Graphical Representation... 386 Link Analysis... 387 viii
Event Flowcharting... 388 Commodity Flowcharting... 388 Financial Profiling... 388 Inference Development... 388 Forensic Laboratories... 388 Special Experts... 389 Cause Classifications... 390 Incendiary Fires... 391 Motives... 392 Revenge... 392 Vandalism... 392 Profit (Fraud)... 392 Crime Concealment... 393 Excitement (Vanity)... 395 Extremism (Terrorism)... 396 Opportunity... 396 Summary... 396 Review Questions... 397 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D NFPA Job Performance Requirements (JPRs) With Page References... 417 List of Insurance Industry Contacts... 421 Common Construction Terminology... 423 Federal Constitutional Search and Seizure Issues in Fire Scene Investigations... 427 Appendix E Film Photography... 431 Appendix F Interview Questions... 439 Glossary... 451 Index... 477 17 Presentation of Investigative Findings... 398 Case History... 401 Media Relations... 402 Media Interviews... 402 Press Conferences... 403 Media Releases... 404 Parts of the Media Release... 404 Media Release Tips... 404 Report Writing... 405 Photographs... 407 Scene Sketches and Diagrams... 408 Interviews... 408 Legal Proceedings... 408 Civil Proceedings... 409 Criminal Proceedings and Criminal... 411 Summary Offense... 411 Misdemeanor (USA Only)... 411 Felony (Canada Indictable Offense)... 412 Testimony at Court Proceedings... 412 Fact Witness... 412 Expert Testimony... 412 Summary... 413 Review Questions... 413 ix