SUPPLEMENT 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users Marcelo M. Hirschler Editor s Note: This supplement is written to assist the reader in determining the applicability of fire test standards, especially those found in the Life Safety Code. Dr. Marcelo M. Hirschler is a fire safety consultant with GBH International. He chairs the NFPA Technical Committee on Hazard and Risk of Contents and Furnishings and the Advisory Committee on the Glossary on Terminology and is a member of various other NFPA technical committees, including the Technical Committee on Fire Tests. He is also active in the ASTM committee E05 on Fire Standards and in a number of other codes and standards arenas. FIRE PROPERTIES Fire test standards typically relate to two types of fire properties: fire resistance and reaction-to-fire. Fire resistance is associated with fire barriers and opening protection. Thus, fire resistance tests are concerned with preventing fire from penetrating into a compartment. Reaction-to-fire is associated with materials and products, including interior finishes, furnishings and contents. Reaction-to-fire tests are concerned with preventing the fire from causing damage, by minimizing or eliminating the release of heat, smoke, and combustion products or the spread of flame. Performancebased provisions related to fire modeling use primarily results of reaction-to-fire tests. Evaluating the level of performance or prescribed function offered by tested materials or assemblies requires an understanding of both the mechanics of a particular test and its limitations. Every test standard contains, in its scope and applicability, information explaining what it is supposed to do (namely what properties it measures) and for what type of materials it should be used. This is very important because it is a common error to use a test for the wrong material or to test for the wrong issue. A test that is commonly specified for an incorrect use is ASTM E 84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials, originally identical to NFPA 255, Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials. This is a test that is so extensively used in many codes (including the Life Safety Code ) that it is often specified for assessing fire properties it cannot measure or for testing materials that it should not be used with. ASTM E 84 is a reaction-to-fire test that is suitable to determine the flame spread index and smoke developed index of materials. Moreover, in order for a material to be suitable for this test, the material must, by its own structural quality or the manner in which it is applied, be capable of supporting itself in position or of being supported in the test apparatus. This test has often been specified, incorrectly, to obtain results on properties like fire resistance (which should be measured using NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building Construction and Materials), or to determine whether a material is noncombustible (which should be assessed with a test like ASTM E 136, Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750 C), or whether it is limited combustible (which is determined by testing in accordance with NFPA 259, Standard Test Method for Potential Heat of Building Materials). See also the discussion on combustibility fire testing below. Other misapplications 1181
1182 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users include using the test for products, such as furniture, that cannot be physically placed in the apparatus, or for materials that cannot be supported in the apparatus throughout the test. Many of the tests referred to in the Life Safety Code have equivalent counterparts administered by other standards-writing organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and Underwriters Laboratories (UL). In recent years all three organizations have withdrawn some of their standards for harmonization purposes. Section 1.4 of the Life Safety Code permits the application or use of equivalent alternatives. Alternatives could include fire test documents different from those specified, or different test protocols if the proper technical documentation is provided to demonstrate equivalency between the tests and verify that the alternative approach fulfills the intended purpose of the applicable code requirement. The 2009 edition of the Life Safety Code officially recognizes the technical equivalence of ASTM and UL standard test methods to the corresponding NFPA test methods: ASTM E 119 and UL 263 for NFPA 251, ASTM E 2074 and UL 10B for NFPA 252 (both sets of fire resistance tests) and ASTM E 84 and UL 723 for the uses where NFPA 255 was previously required, ASTM E 648 for NFPA 253, ASTM E 108 and UL 790 for NFPA 256, ASTM E 1352 for NFPA 261, and ASTM E 1353 for NFPA 260 (all sets of reactionto-fire tests). See Table S3.1. Table S3.1 Fire Test Standards NFPA ASTM UL 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building Construction and Materials 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies 253, Standard Method of Test for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source 255, Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials (proposed for withdrawal) 256, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Roof Coverings (withdrawn) E 119, Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials1 E 2074, Standard Test Method for Fire Tests of Door Assemblies, Including Positive Pressure Testing of Side-Hinged and Pivoted Swinging Door Assemblies (replaced ASTM E 152, withdrawn) E 648, Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source E 84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials E 108, Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Roof Coverings 263, Standard for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials 10B, Standard for Fire Tests of Door Assemblies 723, Standard for Test for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials 790, Standard for Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Roof Coverings 257, Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies 258, Recommended Practice for Determining Smoke Generation of Solid Materials (withdrawn) 259, Standard Test Method for Potential Heat of Building Materials 260, Standard Methods of Tests and Classification System for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture 261, Standard Method of Test for Determining Resistance of Mock-Up Upholstered Furniture Material Assemblies to Ignition by Smoldering Cigarettes E 2010, Standard Test Method for Positive Pressure Fire Tests of Window Assemblies (replaced ASTM E 163, withdrawn) E 662, Standard Test Method for Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials E 1353, Standard Test Methods for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture E 1352, Standard Test Method for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Mock-Up Upholstered Furniture Assemblies 9, Standard for Fire Tests of Window Assemblies 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Fire Properties 1183 Table S3.1 Continued NFPA ASTM UL 262, Standard Method of Test for Flame Travel and Smoke of Wires and Cables for Use in Air-Handling Spaces 263, Standard Method of Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products (withdrawn) 265, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile Coverings on Full Height Panels and Walls 266, Standard Method of Test for Fire Characteristics of Upholstered Furniture Exposed to Flaming Ignition Source (withdrawn) 267, Standard Method of Test for Fire Characteristics of Mattresses and Bedding Assemblies Exposed to Flaming Ignition Source (withdrawn) 268, Standard Test Method for Determining Ignitibility of Exterior Wall Assemblies Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source 269, Standard Test Method for Developing Toxic Potency Data for Use in Fire Hazard Modeling 270, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Smoke Obscuration Using a Conical Radiant Source in a Single Closed Chamber 271, Standard Method of Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter 272, Standard Method of Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Upholstered Furniture Components or Composites and Mattresses Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter (withdrawn) 285, Standard Fire Test Method for Evaluation of Fire Propagation Characteristics of Exterior Non-Load- Bearing Wall Assemblies Containing Combustible Components E 906, Standard Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products E 1537, Standard Test Method for Fire Testing of Upholstered Furniture E 1590, Standard Test Method for Fire Testing of Mattresses E 1678, Standard Test Method for Measuring Smoke Toxicity for Use in Fire Hazard Analysis E 1822, Standard Test Method for Fire Testing of Stacked Chairs E 1995, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Smoke Obscuration Using a Conical Radiant Source in a Single Closed Chamber, with the Test Specimen Oriented Horizontally E 1354, Standard Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter 910, Standard for Safety Test for Flame- Propagation and Smoke-Density Values for Electrical and Optical-Fiber Cables Used in Spaces Transporting Environmental Air (withdrawn) 1715*, Standard for Fire Test of Interior Finish Material 1056, Standard for Safety Fire Test of Upholstered Furniture (withdrawn) 1895, Standard for Safety Fire Test of Mattresses (withdrawn) (continues) Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1184 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users Table S3.1 Continued NFPA ASTM UL 286, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth 287, Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Flammability of Materials in Cleanrooms Using a Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA) 288, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Floor Fire Door Assemblies Installed Horizontally in Fire Resistance Rated Floor Systems 289, Standard Method of Fire Test for Individual Fuel Packages 701, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Flame Propagation of Textiles and Films 705, Recommended Practice for a Field Flame Test for Textiles and Films E 2058, Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Synthetic Polymer Material Flammability Using a Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA) D 568, Standard Test Method for Rate of Burning and/or Extent and Time of Burning of Flexible Plastics in a Vertical Position) (withdrawn) D 1929, Standard Test Method for Ignition Properties of Plastics D 2859, Standard Test Method for Ignition Characteristics of Finished Textile Floor Covering Materials E 136, Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750 C E 162, Test Method for Surface Flammability of Materials Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source E 814, Standard Test Method for Fire Tests of Through-Penetration Fire Stops E 1529, Standard Test Methods for Determining Effects of Large Hydrocarbon Pool Fires on Structural Members and Assemblies E 1623, Test Method for Determination of Fire and Thermal Parameters of Materials, Products, and Systems Using an Intermediate Scale Calorimeter (ICAL) E 1966, Standard Test Method for Fire- Resistive Joint Systems E 2257, Standard Test Method for Room Fire Test of Wall and Ceiling Materials and Assemblies 1715*, Standard for Fire Test of Interior Finish Material 1975, Standard for Fire Tests for Foamed Plastics Used for Decorative Purposes 214, Standard for Safety Tests for Flame- Propagation of Fabrics and Films (withdrawn) 1479, Standard for Fire Tests of Through- Penetration Firestops 1709, Standard for Rapid Rise Fire Tests of Protection Materials for Structural Steel 2079, Standard for Tests for Fire Resistance of Building Joint Systems Note: This table contains NFPA fire test standards and those fire test standards from other organizations, ASTM and UL, that are either similar to NFPA fire test standards or relevant to the Life Safety Code. *UL 1715 is different from both NFPA 265 and NFPA 286, but is a room-corner fire test, normally used for the same purposes as those other tests. That is, it assesses the fire behavior of an interior finish material in a full-scale scenario. See the section on interior wall and ceiling finish later in this supplement. UL 1975 is similar but not identical to NFPA 289 but can be used for the same applications. 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Fire Resistance Testing 1185 FIRE RESISTANCE TESTING Buildings or structures occupied or used in accordance with the individual occupancy chapters of the Life Safety Code (Chapters 11 through 43) are required to meet the minimum construction requirements of those chapters. NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction, 1 is referenced in Chapter 8 of the Life Safety Code. It describes the types of building construction (that is, construction classifications) and the fire resistance ratings applicable to each construction element for each type of building. The fire test to be used to assess fire resistance ratings of elements of building construction is NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building Construction and Materials. See also Table S3.1 for alternative similar fire test methods. NFPA 251 (also referenced primarily in Chapter 8) applies to assemblies of masonry units, composite assemblies of structural materials for buildings (including interior and exterior bearing and other walls and partitions, columns, girders, beams, slabs, and composite slab and beam assemblies for floors and roofs), as well as other assemblies and structural units that constitute permanent integral parts of a finished building. The fire test has specific testing criteria for each type of assembly. Fire barriers, or fire barrier assemblies, are intended to be used as separation barriers or to provide protection of building elements from the effects of fire for a given time as required by Chapter 8, Features of Fire Protection. It is important to note that a fire resistance rating applies to the entire assembly as tested. A fire resistance rating is never assigned to an individual material or product; rather it represents the composite performance of an assembly including all of the components and the specific construction details of the rated assembly. NFPA 251 exposes one side of an assembly (construction element), except for columns and beams, to a standard time-temperature curve (as shown in Exhibit S3.1) inside a furnace leaving the other side unexposed. This is known as a time-temperature curve because the test method specifies the temperature that needs to be measured in the furnace at each point in time. The furnace used must be capable of providing the prescribed temperatures over a given period of time, by following the time-temperature curve shown in Exhibit S3.1. The test method provides criteria for assessing how long (in hours or minutes) it takes for heat to penetrate each assembly and reach an unacceptable temperature rise on the unexposed side or protected element, and how long it takes for the flame or hot gases penetrating through the assembly to ignite cotton waste placed on the unexposed side, during the test. The fire resistance rating will be the time at which the first of the failure criteria is reached, as assessed either by the transmission of heat, the passage of hot gases sufficient to ignite cotton waste, or by structural collapse of the test specimen assembly. The temperature rise failure criterion on the unexposed side is 250 F (140 C) above the test specimen s initial temperature for walls and partitions. For load bearing elements, the test also monitors the load carrying capability of the test specimen during the test exposure. When required, the fire exposure is followed by the application of a specified standard fire hose stream. If the assembly to be evaluated will be used as a load-bearing element, the test is conducted with a load placed on the assembly, to evaluate the load-bearing capacity of the assembly. Some construction assemblies are simply intended to limit the transmission or temperature and/or flames to the unexposed surface. On the other hand, many construction assemblies, such as beams and columns, and floor and roof assemblies, must also sustain an applied load for a pe- Temperature (deg F) 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 Temperature (deg C) Exhibit S3.1 Standard timetemperature curves for NFPA 251/252 and for NFPA 257. 0 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Time (minutes) NFPA 251/252 F NFPA 257 F NFPA 251/252 C NFPA 257 C Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1186 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users riod of time equal to the desired fire resistance rating, and must therefore be tested under the relevant applied load. Walls and partitions are thus permitted to be tested either with load or without. Depending on the structural design of the assembly, certain levels of temperature must not be exceeded at any one point, or an average temperature cannot be exceeded, with temperature limitations ranging from 800 F to 1300 F (427 C to 704 C). An alternative test exists for structural steel columns, whereby the column is not loaded during the test. The test measures the ability of the added protection to control the transmission of heat through the specimen during the specified period of fire exposure. The average temperature of the steel in such columns must not rise above 1000 F (538 C), and the temperature in any one of the measured points cannot exceed 1200 F (649 C). In many cases, the assembly is also subjected to a hose stream test. The use of such a test was inspired by the interest in simulating the effect of water hoses used by emergency personnel to fight fires; in fact, however, the hose stream test itself is not intended to simulate that effect. If required to pass a hose stream test, an assembly with a fire rating of 1 hour or more would have to survive exposure to a hose stream test for half the period of its fire resistance rating, but not for more than 1 hour. When the condition of acceptance requires a hose stream test, after the fire resistance rating has been established, a duplicate assembly is exposed in the furnace to the time-temperature curve for the period required by the hose stream test conditions, then removed from the furnace and immediately subjected to the hose stream test. The hose stream is delivered under pre-set conditions (based on a certain hose, play pipe nozzle, distance from the test specimen, nozzle pressure, and test duration). The hose stream is applied in a specific pattern to fully develop the effects of impact, cooling, and erosion on the entire test specimen. The specimen must withstand the hose stream test such that no openings are created that would permit projection of water from the hose stream beyond the unexposed surface. Further information on specific testing criteria and testing limitations can be found in NFPA 251, which should be consulted before making any firm decisions about the applicability of certain tests, or testing of certain assemblies. Other fire resistance tests used by the Life Safety Code are NFPA 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies; NFPA 257, Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies; NFPA 288, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Floor Fire Door Assemblies Installed Horizontally in Fire Resistance Rated Floor Systems; and ASTM E 814, Standard Test Method for Fire Tests of Through-Penetration Fire Stops. All of these tests use basically the same standard time-temperature curve that NFPA 251 uses (except that the curve in NFPA 257 includes more detail over the short initial time periods; see Exhibit S3.1). However, there are also some differentiating characteristics, which are related to the products being tested. NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives, 2 contains installation requirements for all types of fire doors and windows, and thereby regulates the installation and maintenance of assemblies and devices used to protect openings in walls, floors, and ceilings against the spread of fire and smoke within, into, or out of buildings. NFPA 80 is extensively referenced in the Life Safety Code, especially in Chapter 7 (Means of Egress) and Chapter 8 (Features of Fire Protection). Building Products Fire Doors. Door assemblies in fire barriers must be tested according to NFPA 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies (see also Table S3.1 for alternative similar fire test methods). NFPA 252 provides methods for measuring the relative performance of fire door assemblies where subjected to a prescribed fire test exposure followed by a prescribed hose stream application, using the same time-temperature curve as NFPA 251 (see Exhibit S3.1). The fire door assembly must be tested as a complete assembly, because the effectiveness of the opening protective depends on a satisfactory performance of the entire door assembly, which consists of the door, door frame, and associated hardware. In NFPA 252, the fire door assembly specimen is mounted in a furnace wall and exposed to the standard time-temperature curve. The door assembly is not permitted to develop gaps or openings through the assembly, nor is flaming permitted to occur on the unexposed surface of a door assembly during the first 30 minutes of the fire resistance-rating period, although some intermittent light flames no greater than 6 in. (150 mm) are permitted for periods not exceeding 10-second intervals. After that 30-minute period, intermittent flames are permitted to occur along the edges of the unexposed surface area of the door, if they do not exceed 5 minutes and are no greater than 6 in. (150 mm). For doors having a fire protection rating of 45 minutes or greater, flames not greater than 6 in. (150 mm) in length are permitted to occur on the unexposed surface area of the door during the last 15 minutes of the fire protection rating period during the fire test, provided such flaming is contained within a distance of 1 / 2 in. (38 mm) from the vertical edge and 3 in. (76 mm) from the top edge of the door or frame of the vision panel. When the door hardware is also evalu- 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Fire Resistance Testing 1187 ated for use on fire doors, it must keep the door in a closed position for an exposure period of 3 hours. The latch bolt must remain projected and be intact after the fire exposure test. Note the absence of any criterion addressing temperature transmission to the unexposed side. The fire doors must usually also be exposed to a hose stream test, which subjects the test assembly to the impact, erosion, and cooling effects of the hose stream, immediately following the fire resistance test. The hose stream is directed at the middle and then at all parts of the exposed surface, slowly making changes in direction. However, certain provisions within the Life Safety Code provide for the installation of door assemblies having a fire protection rating of 20 minutes without the hose stream test. One must carefully evaluate the particular requirements associated with the opening protective so that it satisfies the minimum acceptable criteria. A modern trend within code-writing organizations is to require certain applications of fire door assemblies (typically side-hinged and swinging doors) to be tested under a positive pressure scenario. This provision requires that the door assemblies be tested with a neutral pressure plane located 40 in. (1015 mm) above the finished floor. NFPA 252 does not stipulate the height of the neutral plane but records the height in the test results. This permits the test standard to accommodate the many gradients of pressure planes at which a furnace can be operated. The test report document issued following a classification test records the location of the neutral pressure plane to which the door assembly has been tested. The Life Safety Code does not stipulate the minimum required height of the neutral pressure plane for testing the door. If a neutral plane is not established along the height of the test specimen, then it is assumed that the door will be tested under normal testing procedures, which is running the furnace at near atmospheric pressure. This would establish the neutral pressure plane at the top of the door assembly. It is generally recognized that, if a lower neutral pressure plane is established on the door assembly within the furnace, then the test could be considered to be more severe. A door tested under a positive pressure should be accepted as meeting the requirements established for a door tested at atmospheric pressure. Listing agencies have different approaches on how to list and label doors being tested under positive pressure. Additional information associated with these criteria can be found in NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives, which should be consulted for the installation requirements associated with all types of fire doors. Fire protection rating is the appropriate term for the fire resistance associated with an opening protective as detailed in NFPA 252 (for fire doors) and in NFPA 257 (for fire window assemblies). Fire resistance rating is the appropriate term for use with a fire barrier, such as used in walls or floors. In the Life Safety Code and NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code 3, the technical committees have been very careful to use each term appropriately and consistently. However, there are fire doors and glazing assemblies that have a fire resistance rating by virtue of the fact that they were tested using NFPA 251; in that case the code does not consider them to be opening protectives. Fire Window Assemblies. Fire window assemblies are permitted to be used in fire barriers having a fire resistance rating of one hour or less if they have a fire protection rating of 45 minutes and represent up to 25 percent of the fire barrier. Fire windows must be tested in accordance with NFPA 257, Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies (see also Table S3.1 for alternative similar fire test methods and Exhibit S3.1 for the time-temperature curve). The NFPA 257 test method is intended to evaluate the ability of a window or other light-transmitting assembly to remain in an opening during a predetermined test exposure period. Recent editions of NFPA 257 have no references to a particular time limit for testing, and time-temperature guidelines are included for up to 3 hours. Earlier editions limited testing to 45 minutes, but now the test is permitted to be run for the length of time a test sponsor requests. The period of time is then recorded on the appropriate test records. A testing time limit is no longer relevant because new materials and technology exist for window assemblies that will permit increased exposure times and maintain the integrity of the fire barriers in which they are installed. Note that, just as in NFPA 252, there is no criterion addressing temperature transmission to the unexposed side. Discussions are continuing on the amount of radiant heat permitted to transfer through the window assembly to the unexposed side of the window. Currently, the radiant heat transferred is not required to be recorded. A test procedure is available to measure this radiant heat flux and is detailed in Annex C of NFPA 257, with some additional information on radiant heat transmissions in Annex B. The conditions associated with radiant energy could be considered as a factor in the application of a fire-modeling program that might have an occupant passing by such opening protectives, or could, in principle, be used as pass/fail criteria. All considerations and applications for a material s particular use should be reviewed with the limitations of the test results in mind. In NFPA 257, the test specimen is mounted in a furnace wall and exposed to the standard time-temperature curve. A window assembly is considered to have Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1188 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users met the requirements for acceptable performance if it remains in the opening during the fire resistance and hose stream tests, within the following five criteria: 1. No flaming shall occur on the unexposed surface of the assembly. 2. There shall be no separation of the glazing material edges from the glazing frame that creates openings. 3. At the perimeter of operable components, movement from the initial closed position shall not exceed the thickness of the frame member at any point. 4. The window assembly shall not move away from the wall to the extent that an opening is created. 5. There shall be no openings in the window assembly. Exhibits S3.2 and S3.3 represent two views of an assembly that has been exposed to both the fire resistance and the hose stream tests. As with fire doors, fire windows are installed in accordance with the provisions of NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives, which should be consulted for the installation requirements associated with all types of fire windows. NFPA 80 includes limitations on the size and total area permitted for the glazing material installed in fire window assemblies, and also requires that each individual glazing unit have a label that is visible after installation. Also, in NFPA 80, fire window assemblies having a rating of 20 minutes or 30 minutes are limited to the size that has been tested. A window protection of 45 minutes is limited to the maximum area tested and must have no exposed area of individual glazing material exceeding 1296 in. 2 (0.84 m 2 ) and no dimension exceeding 54 in. (1370 mm), unless it has been specifically tested with dimensions in excess of those values. Glazing is currently available that has been tested with dimensions exceeding that size limitation. One should review the appropriate listing associated with the protection rating given to a fire window assembly. Many types of glazing materials are being introduced into the market, and several types of fire-rated glazing products (including wired glass) can satisfy the acceptance criteria of NFPA 257. Nonsymmetrical fire protection rated glazing systems are tested with each face exposed to the furnace, and the assigned fire protection rating is that of the shortest duration obtained from the two tests conducted. It is important that the installation and testing limitations be reviewed for the particular installation. Technological advances within the glazing industry have provided systems using fire-resistant glazing Exhibit S3.2 Unexposed side of window assembly after fire exposure and hose stream application. Exhibit S3.3 Exposed side of window assembly after fire exposure and hose stream application. 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Fire Resistance Testing 1189 materials that are actually fire barrier walls. These glazing walls would have been tested in accordance with NFPA 251 and satisfy the particular pass/fail criteria for fire barriers. The pass/fail criteria include a limitation in the temperature rise on the unexposed side of the test specimen, and a successful hose stream application. The installation requirements and limitations for these glazing wall assemblies would be highlighted in the applicable listing requirements and the manufacturers specifications. This type of glazing would not be required to comply with the installation requirements, because it is not considered an opening protective device. Through-Penetrations. Generally, when fire barriers are tested for a particular hourly rating, these assemblies are tested without any penetrations. It is recognized that within a building these fire barriers will have various penetrations for building services, utilities, and other applications. Penetrations of fire barriers require the appropriate protection by devices or materials that have been tested and listed for that particular application to maintain the fire barrier s integrity. In this edition of the Life Safety Code (see 8.3.5.1 and 8.3.5.6), through-penetration and membrane penetrations for cables, cable trays, conduits, pipes, tubes, combustion vents, exhaust vents, wires, and similar items to accommodate electrical, mechanical, plumbing, and communications systems that pass through a wall, floor, or floor/ceiling assembly constructed as a fire barrier are required (rather than recommended) to be protected by a firestop system or device, and must be tested in accordance with ASTM E 814, Standard Method for Fire Tests of Through-Penetration Fire Stops, which establishes the testing protocols for through-penetrations. Penetrations of a rated assembly that require special consideration are usually tested using a recognized test procedure based on the standard time-temperature curve, normally that contained within ASTM E 814. Additional information can be found in documents published by the individual listing agencies for assemblies that have been tested for specific fire ratings. The ASTM E 814 test protocol establishes F and T ratings as one part of the acceptance criteria for through-penetration systems. The F rating signifies the ability of the penetrating firestop system to withstand a prescribed fire test for a period of time without permitting the passage of flame through the opening or the occurrence of flaming on any element of the unexposed side of the penetrating firestop system. The T rating relates to the transmission of heat through the penetrating firestop system for a given period of time. An acceptable T rating is one that limits the rise of the temperature on the unexposed surface of the penetrating firestop system or penetrating item to no more than 325 F (181 C) above the initial temperature, and for which there is no flame occurrence on the unexposed side. The penetrating firestop is exposed to the same fire test conditions created by the time-temperature curve in NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building Construction and Materials. The Life Safety Code; NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code; NFPA 221, Standard for High-Challenge Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls; 4 and other codes require that the penetrating firestop be under a minimum positive pressure differential of 0.01 in. of water (2.5 Pa) at the location of the penetrating item. This positive pressure must be maintained for the duration of the time for which it is being tested. The penetrating firestop system must be tested for the same time period as that of the fire barrier in which it is installed. The penetrating firestop system must also be subjected to the effects of an applied hose stream test. Joints. Joints used in the construction of fire barriers can include expansion, seismic, and control joints. These joints are tested at their maximum joint width in accordance with NFPA 251. The test includes joints to their full height or length of the test assembly. The fireresistive joint system tested must include a splice or a method of connecting two or more lengths of the joint system. The test must be conducted so that the joint system is tested under a minimum positive pressure differential of 0.01 in. of water (2.5 Pa) for the total time of the test. There is an exception for expansion or seismic joints designed to prevent the penetration of fire and shown to have a fire resistance rating of not less than the required fire resistance rating of the floor when tested in accordance with ANSI/UL 2079, Test of Fire Resistance of Building Joint Systems (see 8.6.3 of NFPA 101). Fire-resistive joint systems that are designed to accommodate movement must be preconditioned by cycling under the conditions of ASTM E 1399, Standard Test Method for Cyclic Movement and Measuring the Minimum and Maximum Joint Widths of Architectural Joint Systems. 5 Fire Dampers. Chapter 7, Means of Egress, states that fire barriers forming horizontal exits shall not be penetrated by ducts, unless such ducts are existing penetrations protected by fire dampers approved and listed for the particular application. Fire dampers are tested either for static systems, where the HVAC system is automatically shut down in the event of a fire, or for dynamic systems, where the HVAC system does not shut down. Fire dampers used in dynamic systems are Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1190 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users investigated for closure under their maximum recommended airflow. Fire dampers are tested in accordance with ANSI/UL 555, Standard for Fire Dampers. Fire dampers used in rated fire-resistive floor-ceiling and roof-ceiling assemblies are tested in accordance with ANSI/UL 555C, Standard for Ceiling Dampers. The fire dampers are tested in assemblies under the conditions of the fire exposure of the same time-temperature curve as in NFPA 251. The ANSI/UL standards provide the acceptance criteria in regard to the flaming on the unexposed side, closing time of the damper, air leakage, if applicable, and hose stream application. It should be noted that fire dampers are not tested for the limitation of heat transmission through the fire damper assembly. This particular condition is recognized in the requirements of NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems, 6 associated with the limitation on the number of fire dampers permitted to be installed in a vertical duct that has multiple floor penetrations. Smoke Dampers. Paragraph 8.5.5.2 discusses the use of smoke dampers. Where a smoke barrier is penetrated by a duct or air transfer opening, a smoke damper designed and tested in accordance with the requirements of ANSI/UL 555S, Standard for Leakage Rated Dampers for Use in Smoke Control Systems, must be installed. Where a smoke barrier is also constructed as a fire barrier, a combination fire/smoke damper designed and tested in accordance with the requirements of both ANSI/UL 555S and ANSI/UL 555 must be installed. Floor Fire Doors. Paragraph 8.3.3.4 regulates floor fire doors. It states that floor fire door assemblies shall be tested in accordance with NFPA 288, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Floor Fire Door Assemblies Installed Horizontally in Fire Resistance Rated Floor Systems, and shall achieve a fire resistance rating not less than the assembly being penetrated. It also states that floor fire door assemblies shall be listed and labeled for the application. The time-temperature curve in NFPA 288 is the same as that in NFPA 251, but there is no required hose stream test. The transmission of heat through the specimen during the fire resistance rating period shall not raise the average temperature on its unexposed surface more than 250 F (139 C) above its initial temperature. Additionally, a temperature rise of 325 F (181 C) shall not be exceeded at any one point. Critical Test Limitations of Fire Resistance Tests Although test assemblies have been rated for a specific period using a fire resistance test, it must be recognized that the test is only intended to be a comparative test. Therefore, under actual field conditions, some assemblies fail prematurely and others remain in place longer than expected. The simulated test exposure used in the test protocol was established around 1920; it represents one level of fire severity considered to be a typical office building scenario of that era. Research continues to determine whether the varying types of fuel loads found in more modern occupancies would require a different type of time-temperature curve. Such research is always ongoing and differing opinions are expressed by various investigators. It is worth mentioning, however, that the time-temperature curve from the test used by European countries for assessing fire resistance, namely ISO 834, Fire-resistance tests Elements of building construction, 7 is very similar to that in NFPA 251. Currently, discussions are ongoing regarding the application of particular fire modeling programs to predict the results of testing of assemblies, as well as what the pass/fail criteria should be. An ASTM standard guide, ASTM E 2032, Standard Guide for Extension of Data from Fire Resistance Tests Conducted in Accordance with ASTM E 119, has been issued to address the extension of fire resistance results obtained from fire tests performed in accordance with NFPA 251 or ASTM E 119 to constructions that have not been tested. The guide is based on principles involving the extension of test data using simple considerations. The acceptance of these principles and their application is on a worst-case scenario. It is always important to remember that new materials may present unforeseen issues that will need to be resolved. A good example is the recent understanding that high-strength concrete can cause explosive spalling to occur at relatively low temperatures. This finding could have an adverse effect on the fire protection properties assumed for a construction element using such materials. Another area of concern for the fire resistance of a test assembly is its integrity, or the protection of through-penetrations. The test criteria in NFPA 251 do not address conventional openings found in assemblies, such as those needed for incorporation of electrical receptacles, or penetrations by electrical wires, cables or raceways, plumbing pipes, utility services, and construction joints, unless they have been specifically tested as part of the assembly. All penetrations require special review and consideration. A source for evaluating certain penetrations permitted in rated assemblies is found in the introduction of the UL Fire Resistance Directory. 8 This document addresses the hourly ratings for beams, floors, roofs, columns, walls, and partitions. Its design information section provides in- 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Reaction-To-Fire Testing 1191 formation pertaining to the different penetrations found in rated assemblies and the required protection or limitations. The publication Guideline on Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies, by Robert Brady Williamson, Cecile Grant, Joseph Zicherman, Fred Fisher, Harry Hasegawa, Herman Spaeth, Harriet Watson, Vytenis Babrauskas, and Norman Kornsand, for the National Institute of Building Sciences for the Department of Housing and Urban Development, contains information on construction materials typical of an earlier time, generally prior to 1950. It contains data on fire resistance and reaction-to-fire, including flame spread, smoke production, and degree of combustibility. The information has also been included in NFPA 914, Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures, 9 as Annex O. REACTION-TO-FIRE TESTING Major Properties and Products Interior finish as it relates to the Life Safety Code refers to the exposed interior wall surfaces, exposed interior ceiling finishes, and exposed interior floor finishes. The reaction-to-fire properties associated with the regulation of interior wall and ceiling finish are flame spread and smoke development in a traditional standard test (ASTM E 84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials; see also Table S3.1 for alternative similar fire test methods). Alternatively, in a room-corner test or in a specialized large-scale test, the reaction-to-fire properties associated with wall and ceiling finish are heat and smoke release and flame propagation (potentially leading to flashover). The reaction-to-fire properties associated with interior floor finish are ignition characteristics (in accordance with ASTM D 2859, Standard Test Method for Ignition Characteristics of Finished Textile Floor Covering Materials) and critical radiant flux (in accordance with NFPA 253, Standard Method of Test for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source; see also Table S3.1 for alternative similar fire test methods). These provisions should not be associated or confused with fire resistance ratings. As discussed above, the properties associated with interior finish are reaction-to-fire properties and not fire resistance properties. They refer to the ability of a material to contribute to overall fire and smoke growth and spread. An interior finish classification should also not be compared or confused with a material s combustibility or the degrees of combustibility. Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish. There are two types of approaches being used to evaluate interior wall and ceiling finishes. Each use of a material for a particular application of interior finish needs to be coordinated with the appropriate testing procedure, and each interior finish testing method has a specific scope and application. There is a possibility that a single product could be used in different applications and be tested using different fire test methods. The end use application must be identified, because that knowledge stipulates the appropriate test method and applicable results. Steiner Tunnel Test. The traditional approach to testing interior wall and ceiling finish for use within a code involves ASTM E 84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials, a test conducted in a piece of equipment known as the Steiner tunnel. Depending on occupancy and use within the occupancy, the Life Safety Code limits the use of interior wall and ceiling finish materials to minimize flame propagation and smoke development on the exposed wall and ceiling surfaces. This approach consists of evaluating the flame spread over the surface of a material, and the smoke developed, when the material is exposed to a prescribed gas-fed fire. The Life Safety Code provides, in 10.2.3, three classifications for interior finish, based on a flame spread index (FSI) and a smoke development index (SDI), as tested in accordance with ASTM E 84 (see also Table S3.1 for alternative similar fire test methods). The classifications (with their corresponding flame spread index and smoke development index values) are shown in Table S3.2. The flame spread index and the smoke development index both reflect the comparative fire-test response of a material when compared with two established benchmarks: a 1 / 4 in. (6.3 mm) thick inorganic reinforced cement board (assigned both an FSI and an SDI of 0) and a nominal 25 / 32 in. (19.8 mm) select grade red oak flooring board (assigned both an FSI and an SDI of 100). The FSI is a comparative nondimensional figure and does not directly represent a flame speed, flame velocity, or flame propagation. The SDI is also a comparative nondimensional figure and does not directly represent optical density or smoke release rate. Table S3.2 Flame Spread Index (FSI) and Smoke Development Index (SDI) Values for Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish Classifications Class FSI SDI Class A 0 25 0 450 Class B 26 75 0 450 Class C 76 200 0 450 The testing apparatus used in ASTM E 84 is shown in Exhibits S3.4 and S3.5. The specimens are required to be at least 20 in. (508 mm) wide by 24 ft (7.3 m) long Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1192 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users A Fire end Air-inlet port for air supply, 76.2 ± 1.6 mm (3 in. ± 0.062 in.) Adjustable air-intake shutter 7.62 m (25 ft) length of test chamber Draft gauge connection B A B Gas burner for ignition fire 0.30 m (1 ft) 1372 ± 127 mm 4.11 m (13 ft 0 in.) (54 in. ± 5 in.) 448 mm ± 9.5 mm (17.625 in. ± 0.375 in.) 304.8 mm ± 12.7 mm (12 in. ± 0.5 in.) Insulated gradual rectangularto-round sheet-metal vent pipe Thermocouple Vent end Photoelectric cell 4.88 m (16 ft) min. Manometer draft-gauge connection 6.40 m (21 ft) Thermocouples min. from 3.2 mm (¹ ₈ in.) from surface vent end Access for 12.2 m (40 ft) max. velocity measurements Automatically 406 mm (16 in.) inside diameter controlled damper 50.8-mm (2-in.) min. high-temperature mineral-composition material C C To induceddraft system Light source Section A-A Section C-C Exhibit S3.4 Schematic diagram of tunnel test apparatus used to characterize the surface burning of materials. Liquid seal Removable metal-and-mineral composite top panel 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) mineral-fiber/cement board 3-mm (0.125-in.) fibered glass belting Water-cooled structural-steel tube 448.0 mm ± 9.5 mm (17.625 in. ± 0.375 in.) 305 mm ± 12.7 mm (12 in. ± 0.5 in.) 101.6 ± 12.7 mm (4.0 ± 0.5 in.) Panes Double-pane observation window, 70 ± 6 by 280+50-25 mm (2.75 ± 0.25 by 11.0+2.0-1.0 in.) 127.0±12.7 mm (5.0 ± 0.5 in.) Fire brick 228.6 mm x 114.3 mm x 63.5 mm (9.0 in. x 4.5 in. x 2.5 in.), max. temp. 1427 C (2600 F) 19 mm (0.75 in.) Exhibit S3.5 Cross-sectional view of the tunnel test apparatus. and are placed within the test apparatus. A gas flame of approximately 300,000 Btu/sec (89 kw) is applied at one end of the tunnel, and a regulated constant draft is applied through the tunnel from the flame end. The progress of the flame front is observed through side windows for 10 minutes. The FSI is a relative indication of flame propagation, but is not in any way an indication of fire resistance or of combustibility only of the ability of the material to resist propagation of flame spread across its surface. It is possible that a ma- 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Reaction-To-Fire Testing 1193 terial with a low ability to spread flame (for example, bare sheet metal) could also exhibit little or no fire resistance when exposed to the testing criteria of NFPA 251. The smoke development represents a degree of obscuration and is measured by a photoelectric cell mounted in the test chamber s exhaust outlet, opposite a light source. A reduction in the light transmitted, due to the smoke particulates that pass by the photoelectric cell, is recorded and used to calculate the SDI. It should be noted that there is no direct relationship between the flame spread and smoke development values. It is possible that a material having a low flame spread index could also exhibit a very high smoke development index. Specimens tested in the Steiner tunnel test must be representative of the material for which test results are desired. When specific materials and products are considered for use or are reviewed for compliance with a provision of the Life Safety Code, it is critical that the intended end use correspond with the tested configuration. If the material or product differs in composition or is mounted or applied in a manner that deviates from the tested specimen, it could have an adverse effect. The actual FSI and SDI are likely to be different from those established in the original test results. It is very important therefore, to follow the manufacturer or listing instructions when installing or applying the interior finish material. Section 6.8 of ASTM E 84 discusses the mandatory methods for specimen preparation and mounting for testing some materials, as discussed below. The Appendix of ASTM E 84 provides guidance on the different mounting configurations for some other types of building materials when tested in the Steiner tunnel. This appendix is provided as a guide and cannot be used as a requirement, and so caution should be used when applying it to particular materials. As stated above, information on the mandatory required procedures for mounting and testing some materials in the Steiner tunnel test has been developed and incorporated into ASTM E 84, in Section 6.8, and more of them are under development (see Table S3.3). The ASTM committee on Fire Standards, ASTM E05, is working on such mounting methods and is developing further standard practices. Not all of them are critical in the Life Safety Code. Some materials that cannot support themselves in the tunnel and that are artificially supported by a wire mesh have been demonstrated to have FSI characteristics that are significantly different from those found in actual field installations. Therefore, the permitted use of wire mesh to support test specimens has been limited in recent editions of ASTM E 84. It has also been established that the ASTM E 84 test method is not suitable for certain building materials. Included Table S3.3 Steiner Tunnel Specimen Preparation and Mounting Practices to Assess Surface Burning Characteristics of Specific Materials Designation E 2231 E 2404 E 2573 E 2579 E XXXX In progress Applications In progress In progress Application Pipe and Duct Insulation Systems Textile, Paper and Vinyl Wall and Ceiling Coverings Site-Fabricated Stretch Systems Wood Products Reflective Insulation Materials and Radiant Barrier Materials for Building Applications Plastic Pipe and Tubing for Building Floor Covers Vapor Barriers are those that, due to their own structural quality or the manner in which they are applied, are not capable of supporting themselves in position or of being supported in the test furnace at a thickness comparable to their recommended use. When using these materials as interior finishes, a different test protocol might be required. An appropriate test for these types of materials would be NFPA 286, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth. Table A.10.2.2 provides a compilation of the interior finish requirements of the occupancy chapters (Chapters 11 through 43) of the Life Safety Code, based on ASTM E 84. Wherever the use of Class C interior wall and ceiling finish is required, Class A or Class B is permitted, and wherever Class B interior wall and ceiling finish is required, Class A is also permitted. Room-Corner Test. As an alternative to the Steiner tunnel test, 10.2.3.2 explains that interior wall and ceiling finish materials can be tested in accordance with a room-corner test, namely NFPA 286, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth, and, if they meet the appropriate conditions (from 10.2.3.7.2), they can be used anywhere a material is required to meet Class A, Class B, or Class C finish requirements in accordance with ASTM E 84, as explained above. This is a critical difference in approach, since a room-corner test exposes an interior wall or ceiling finish material when applied to walls (or walls and ceilings) of a room, and it measures heat and smoke release. Historically, codes have regulated materials on walls and ceilings using ASTM E 84. Full-scale room-corner fire test research has shown that flame spread indices produced by ASTM E 84 may not reliably predict all aspects of the fire behavior of textile wall and ceiling Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1194 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users coverings. NFPA 286, known as a room-corner test, was developed for assessing the fire and smoke obscuration performance of interior wall and ceiling finish materials. As long as an interior wall or ceiling finish material is tested by NFPA 286 using a mounting system, substrate, and adhesive (if appropriate) that are representative of actual use, the room-corner test provides an adequate evaluation of a product s flammability and smoke obscuration behavior. Manufacturers, installers, and specifiers should be encouraged to use NFPA 286, because this standard fire test has the ability to characterize actual product behavior, as opposed to data generated by tests using ASTM E 84, which only allow comparisons of one product s performance with that of another. If a manufacturer or installer chooses to test a wall finish in accordance with NFPA 286, additional testing in accordance with ASTM E 84 is not necessary. The test results from ASTM E 84 are suitable for classification purposes but should not be used as input for fire models, because they are not generated in units suitable for engineering calculations. Actual test results for heat, smoke, and combustion product release from NFPA 286 are suitable for use as input for fire models for performance-based design. In NFPA 286, the test compartment is a standard room, with dimensions of 8 ft 12 ft 8 ft high (2.4 m 3.7 m 2.4 m high), including a 30 in. 80 in. (0.76 m 2.03 m) doorway in the center of the 8 ft 8 ft (2.4 m 2.4 m) wall. (See Exhibit S3.6.) The test material is installed completely covering the three walls of the standard room (all except for the wall containing the doorway), as well as the entire ceiling (if appropriate). If a ceiling covering only is being tested, the test material covers the ceiling only. The ignition source for NFPA 286 is a gas burner with a nominal 12 in. 12 in. (305 mm 305 mm) porous top surface of a refractory material, as shown in Exhibit S3.7, which produces a diffusion flame that will expose the walls in the corner of the room where the specimens are mounted to a predetermined energy source. The gas burner is located flush against the two back walls and is used at a net heat output of 40 kw ± 1 kw for the first 5 minutes, followed by a net heat output of 160 kw ± 5 kw for the next 10 minutes. The combustion products from the test room are collected in a hood that is fed into a 3 ft 3 ft (0.91 m 0.91 m) plenum just outside the doorway connected to an exhaust duct. Within this exhaust duct, measurements of gas velocity, temperature, and concentrations of selected gases are made. The hood is designed to develop a minimum flow rate, sufficient to capture all the products of combustion being expelled from the fire test room. The canopy hood and exhaust duct are shown in Exhibit S3.8. All the measuring instrumentation is placed in that exhaust duct. The room-corner test method assesses heat release (by the principle of oxygen consumption calorimetry), smoke release into the duct, and the release of combustion products. It is understood that heat release rate is the most critical reaction-to-fire property, as it parallels the intensity of 305 mm (12 in.) 152 mm (6 in.) White Ottawa silica sand 3.66 m ± 0.05 m (12 ft ± 2 in.) 305 mm (12 in.) A 152 mm (6 in.) 76 mm (3 in.) A Gas 2.44 m ± 0.05 m (8 ft ± 2 in.) 0.76 m ± 6.4 mm (30 in. ± 0.25 in.) 2.03 m ± 6.4 mm (80 in. ± 0.25 in.) 2.44 m ± 0.05 m (8 ft ± 2 in.) Exhibit S3.6 Interior fire test room dimensions and interior doorway dimensions for the NFPA 286 test. 152 mm (6 in.) Top view 28 mm (1.125 in.) Side view A A White Ottawa silica sand Exhibit S3.7 Gas burner for the NFPA 286 test. Nominal 19-mm (0.75-in.) pipe Gas 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Reaction-To-Fire Testing 1195 0.9 m (3 ft) 306-mm (12-in.) circular aperture 150 mm (6 in.) 3.66 m (12 ft) 3.5 m (11.5 ft) 3.3 m (11 ft) 1.5 m ( 5 ft) to exhaust system 0.9 m (3 ft) (min.) Plenum 406-mm (16-in.) circular duct Exhaust Smoke meter 1.1 m (3.5 ft) Hood Gas sampling probe Thermocouples and bidirectional probe 2.44 m 2.44 m (8 ft 8 ft) square hood (min. dimensions) Top of door opening 2.44 m 3.66 m (8 ft 12 ft) burn room Burner Exhibit S3.8 Canopy hood and exhaust duct for the NFPA 286 test. the fire. The Life Safety Code, like most other codes, requires that an interior finish material in this test meet the following conditions: 1. Flames shall not spread to the ceiling during the 40 kw exposure. 2. During the 160 kw exposure, the following criteria shall be met: a. Flames shall not spread to the outer extremities of the sample on the 8 ft 12 ft (2.4 m 3.7 m) wall. b. Flashover shall not occur. 3. The peak heat release rate throughout the test shall not exceed 800 kw. 4. For new installations, the total smoke released throughout the test shall not exceed 1000 m 2. Values derived from NFPA 286 are in SI units; there is no straightforward inch-pound equivalent. Flashover is determined to have occurred in the test chamber when any two of the following conditions have been attained: 1. A heat flux at the floor reaches 25 kw/m 2. 2. The average upper air temperature exceeds 1200 F (650 C). 3. Flames exit the doorway. 4. A paper target on the floor ignites spontaneously. The pass/fail criterion for smoke release was determined following an assessment of smoke released in a room-corner test and in the Steiner tunnel test by a number of interior finish materials, which suggested that a material with a total smoke released value exceeding 1000 m 2 in a room-corner test would be likely also to exceed an SDI of 450 in the Steiner tunnel test. (See Exhibit S3.9.) It should be noted that the requirement for smoke release within the Life Safety Code does not apply to existing installations. The technical committee determined that this new requirement should not be applied retroactively. A separate room-corner test had been developed earlier for use with textile materials that are used as wall coverings: NFPA 265, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile Coverings on Full Height Panels and Walls. The room, burner, and instrumentation are identical to those in NFPA 286. However, NFPA 265 differs from NFPA 286 in two ways: 1. The exposure after 5 minutes at 40 kw increases only to 150 kw for 10 minutes. 2. The gas burner is recessed slightly [approximately 2 in. (51 mm) in each direction] from the walls. This is a critical difference in that the flames from the burner itself in the NFPA 265 test do not reach the Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1196 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users Total smoke released in room corner test 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 Room corner test smoke criterion 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 SDI in Steiner Tunnel Test Exhibit S3.9 Comparison of smoke values in different test methods. ceiling during the initial test period (i.e., at 150 kw), while those from the NFPA 286 burner do have direct flame impingement on the ceiling even during the initial test period. Therefore, the Life Safety Code and other codes limit the application of NFPA 265 only to textile wall coverings (and to expanded vinyl wall covering materials). Interior finishes that are classified as textile materials require special consideration and appropriate testing, due primarily to their very low thickness. Textile wall covering materials can include napped, tufted, looped, woven, and nonwoven or similar materials. The NFPA 265 test procedure was developed because fire research had shown that a Class A flame spread index in a textile material does not accurately predict the overall burning characteristic behavior of this material in this particular end use. Two test protocols, Method A and Method B, used to be approved for testing a textile material in accordance with NFPA 265. Method A uses a corner-test exposure and mounts the test specimen on only sections of two walls of the test compartment. The test specimens are mounted only on the rear wall and on the left side wall and extend 2 ft (0.6 m) down from the ceiling. Method B uses the same test compartment configuration but requires that the test specimens be mounted so that they fully cover the three complete walls (not the wall containing the doorway) with the test specimen. Since the 2006 edition of the Life Safety Code, Method B of NFPA 265 has been eliminated from the permitted test methods. The test compartment is identical to that in NFPA 286, as is the gas burner (but not its intensity or location, as described above). (See Exhibit S3.10.) Interestingly, when a textile wall covering is tested in accordance with Method A of NFPA 265 (a frequent occurrence), the corresponding results used to be suitable for code approval, but have never been considered suitable for computer modeling of the fire hazard. For a textile wall covering material to be considered acceptable by the Life Safety Code when tested in accordance with NFPA 265, flames must not spread to the ceiling during the 40 kw exposure, flames must not spread to the outer extremity of the test specimen during the 150 kw exposure, and the test specimen in the room cannot reach flashover. Fire research involving the full-scale room-corner fire test scenarios has documented that textile materials found to be Class A via the Steiner tunnel test can have a burning behavior that is unsatisfactory. So, the fire safety conclusions drawn from the two test methods can be different. It was decided that the conclusions drawn from the more realistic room-corner tests were more likely to be correct. Thus, the Life Safety Code now requires that textile wall covering materials be tested in accordance with NFPA 265 and pass the requirements of 10.2.3.7.1, or be tested in accordance with NFPA 286 and pass the requirements of 10.2.3.7.2, or be tested in accordance with ASTM E 84 and obtain a Class A rating and be installed in an occupancy that is fully sprinklered if it extends from the floor to the ceiling (see 10.2.4.1). It is important to note that the pass/fail criteria associated with NFPA 265 are similar to those associated with NFPA 286, with two exceptions: the measurement of smoke release is not a requirement, and the added requirement for a peak heat release rate of 800 kw is not included. Expanded vinyl wall and ceiling covering materials can be tested in the same way as textile wall covering materials, namely using ASTM E 84 or NFPA 265, but with the same limitations of use. Alternatively, they can be tested as other interior finish materials, namely using NFPA 286, without limitations of use. Foam plastic insulation cannot be used exposed as an 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Reaction-To-Fire Testing 1197 0.6 m (2 ft) 1.22 m (4 ft) 0.6 m (2 ft) 2.44 m (8 ft) 0.6 m (2 ft) Rear wall Note: Screened areas represent test materials. The test material is applied so that the machine direction is vertical. The burner is located 51 mm (2 in.) from both the rear wall and the left sidewall. 2.44 m (8 ft) 0.6 m (2 ft) 1.22 m (4 ft) 1.22 m (4 ft) Note: Burner measures 305 mm 305 mm (1 ft 1 ft) in plan view. Burner height = 305 mm (1 ft). 0.6 m (2 ft) Left sidewall Floor plan Front wall 0.76 m (2 ft 6 in.) Right sidewall Ceiling plan 2 m (6 ft 8 in.) Exhibit S3.10 Specimen mounting for Method A test protocol of NFPA 265. interior finish material, except as tested using NFPA 286. Alternatively, foam plastic insulation can be protected from the occupied interior of the building by being covered with a thermal barrier. Another widely used room-corner test, not used in the Life Safety Code, is ASTM E 2257, Standard Test Method for Room Fire Test of Wall and Ceiling Materials and Assemblies (similar to ISO 9705, Fire Tests Full Scale Room Fire Tests for Surface Products 10 ). It is used by the European Union for regulation of building products; by NFPA 301, Code for Safety to Life from Fire on Merchant Vessels, 11 for case furniture; and by the High Speed Craft Code 12 of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) for regulation of interior finish fire restricting materials. The test is basically the same as NFPA 286 (see Exhibits S3.5 through S3.7, which describe the room, ignition burner, and instrumentation), except that the ignition source is a gas burner, which has an output of 100 kw for the first 10 minutes, followed by an output of 300 kw for a subsequent 10 minutes. Just like NFPA 286, this test assesses heat and smoke release and the development of flashover. Tested materials can be required to meet different sets of pass/fail criteria or classifications into categories. UL 1715, Standard for Fire Test of Interior Finish Material, is an early version of a room-corner test, which is widely used in codes, including the Life Safety Code, for assessing the fire performance of cellular or foamed plastic materials (foam plastics) used as interior finish. It uses a 30 lb (13.6 kg) wood crib in a corner of the same basic room as NFPA 265 or NFPA 286. In the test, the specimen, the interior finish material, is mounted on the back wall of the room and on 8 ft (2.4 m) of one of the side walls. Measurements are based on temperature and visual observations of extent of flame spread within the room (i.e., whether the flame reaches the extremities and whether it exits the room and indicates flashover). Of course, optional measure- Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1198 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users ments of heat and smoke release are also possible. It has been shown that UL 1715 is less severe than NFPA 286. FM 4880, Approval Standard for Class 1 Insulated Wall or Wall and Roof/Ceiling Panels; Plastic Interior Finish Materials; Plastic Exterior Building Panels; Wall/Ceiling Coating Systems; Interior or Exterior Finish Systems, 13 is a fire test suitable for assessing the fire performance (heat release or flame spread) of cellular or foamed plastic materials (foam plastics) used as interior finish. It requires that the assembly tested not support a selfpropagating fire when subjected to a 25 ft (7.6 m) high corner test, as evidenced by flaming or material damage, after exposure to a 750 lb (340 kg) wood crib fire. Other test options exist within the standard, depending on the application of the product tested: the FM equivalent to NFPA 287/ASTM E 2058, a 50 ft (15.2 m) high corner test, and a room corner test (such as NFPA 265, NFPA 286, or ISO 9705). No smoke measurements are made. UL 1040, Standard for Fire Test of Insulated Wall Construction, is similar to FM 4880 in that it uses a 764 lb (347 kg) wood crib ignition source in a corner configuration and assesses whether surface burning extends beyond 19 ft (5.5 m) from the intersection of the two walls. Smoke release is not assessed. UL 1040, UL 1715, and FM 4880 are all used, together with NFPA 286, for assessing the fire performance (but not the smoke release) of foam plastics as interior finish. The tests are also widely used in codes for assessing the suitability of a material as a thermal barrier separating foam plastics and/or metal composite materials (MCMs) from the interior of the building or from plenums. The 2009 edition of the Life Safety Code added the requirements that new installations of cellular or foamed plastic materials for use as interior finish tested in accordance with UL 1040 or FM 4880, tests which do not include a smoke component, must also be tested for smoke release. It explains further that suitable smoke release tests include the following: 1. Additional measurements of smoke release into the duct that demonstrate that the total smoke released throughout the test does not exceed 1000 m 2 2. NFPA 286, with the acceptance criterion of 10.2.3.7.2 (4) 3. ASTM E 84, with a smoke developed index not exceeding 450 A new test was developed for 2009: NFPA 275, Standard Method of Fire Tests for the Evaluation of Thermal Barriers Used Over Foam Plastic Insulation, which consists of two parts: (a) a fire resistance test and (b) an integrity fire test. The fire resistance test can be conducted using the time-temperature curve of NFPA 251, ASTM E 119, or UL 263, but the test specimen can be significantly smaller (31.5 31.5 in. or 800 800 mm exposed surface area), and the thermal barrier must exhibit a 15-minute fire resistance rating so that during the 15-minute test period, the average measured temperature rise above the average temperature at the start of the fire test for the thermocouples on the unexposed side does not exceed 250 F (139 C), and the measured temperature rise of any such single thermocouple does not exceed 325 F (181 C). The integrity fire test exposes the thermal barrier and the underlying foam plastic or MCM to be protected, and it can be conducted using any of the following four tests: NFPA 286, UL 1040, UL 1715, or FM 4880. The pass-fail criteria for NFPA 286 are those discussed above, and those for the other tests are as specified in the respective standards. A common misapplication of test methods needs to be pointed out here: textile materials normally used as floor coverings, such as carpets or carpet-like materials, that have achieved a Class I or a Class II rating (see details in the following section) are not permitted to be installed as interior wall or ceiling finish. In other words, carpets cannot be used to cover walls or ceilings where an interior wall or ceiling finish rating is required unless they have been tested as wall or ceiling coverings. The reason for this is that a classification is obtained by testing with NFPA 253, Standard Method of Test for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source, and this test method, which generates a critical radiant flux and not a flame spread or heat release, is applicable only when the material is installed as a floor covering or as an interior floor finish. Another common misapplication of test methods is one whereby a textile material is tested by means of NFPA 701, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Flame Propagation of Textiles and Films (see more details later in this supplement), and then installed as interior finish on walls, ceilings, or floors. NFPA 701 is intended to apply to fabrics or other materials used in curtains, draperies, or other window treatments. It is also suitable, in Test 1, to a number of materials having an area density not greater than 21 oz/yd 2 (700 g/m 2 ), and, in Test 2, to fabrics and films, with or without reinforcement or backing, with area densities greater than 21 oz/yd 2 (700 g/m 2 ). NFPA 701 assesses vertical flame propagation performance criteria, which are suitable for draperies, curtains, and other similar loosely hanging furnishings and decorations (see 10.3.1 of the Life Safety Code). However, NFPA 701 is an unsuitable test for assessing the fire problem potentially associated with textiles applied to a solid backing and used as wall linings or textiles installed horizontally on floors 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook
Reaction-To-Fire Testing 1199 or ceilings. This is explained in Annex A of the Life Safety Code. It has recently also been understood that the fire performance of site-fabricated stretch systems (which often have a textile cover) is not properly assessed using NFPA 701 but needs to be assessed using ASTM E 84, with the test specimen preparation and mounting procedure specified in ASTM E 2573. As stated above, it is critical that every material be assessed using the tests appropriate to the end-use application. Thus, if the same type of material is employed in different end-use applications, it may require testing via various test methods to be qualified for all applications. Interior Floor Finish. Interior floor finish is defined in the Life Safety Code as the interior finish of floors, ramps, stair treads and risers, and other walking surfaces. Interior floor finish needs to meet the requirements of two different fire tests: an ignition test and a critical radiant flux test. The United States Flammable Fabrics Act requires that all carpets and rugs manufactured, imported, distributed, or marketed in the United States must comply with the requirements of 16 CFR 1630, Standard for the Surface Flammability of Carpets and Rugs (FF 1 70). 14 Because the Life Safety Code is applicable outside of the United States, it references (in 10.2.2.2 and 10.2.7.1) a standard test method that is substantially similar to 16 CFR 1630: ASTM D 2859. (The Code does explain that the two are basically equivalent.) In the test method, a No. 1588 methenamine timed burning tablet (commonly known as methenamine pill) weighing 0.0052 oz (0.149 g) is placed flat on a test specimen consisting of a section of carpet and ignited with a lighted match (ensuring that the match does not ignite the carpet). If the charred portion of the test specimen does not exceed 3 in. (76 mm) in length, the test specimen passes the test. This test method is only applicable to interior floor finish that is a textile, because most hard surface flooring materials are known to meet the test requirements. Interior floor finish materials used in regulated environments, as determined by the Life Safety Code or where the authority having jurisdiction determines that their particular burning characteristics are unknown, often must also meet a minimum critical radiant flux when tested in accordance with NFPA 253 (see also Table S3.1 for alternative similar fire test methods). Paragraph 10.2.2.2 of the Life Safety Code specifies when interior floor finishes are required to have a fire safety classification rating, and 10.2.7 describes the criteria needed. Interior floor finishes are grouped in two classes in accordance with their critical radiant flux ratings: 1. Class I Interior Floor Finish: critical radiant flux not less than 0.45 W/cm 2 2. Class II Interior Floor Finish: critical radiant flux not less than 0.22 W/cm 2 but less than 0.45 W/cm 2 The Life Safety Code also states (10.2.7.2) that a critical radiant flux of 0.1 W/cm 2 (which is basically considered to be equivalent to a pass in the ASTM D 2859 test) is minimally required for floor coverings other than carpets. This applies to floor coverings with unknown fire performance, and is discussed in more detail in A.10.2.7.2 and A.10.2.7.3. The NFPA 253 test method measures the critical radiant flux (CRF) behavior of a horizontally mounted floor covering system exposed to a radiant heater, inside a test chamber (see Exhibits S3.11 through S3.13, which show the apparatus used to test the floor covering specimens in this test method). A gas-fired panel serving as a radiant heat energy source is installed at one end of the test chamber, on an incline (at a 30 angle) so that it extends over the test specimen. The radiant heater applies a graded heat flux that ranges between approximately 0.1 and 1.1 W/cm 2 close to the two ends of the test specimen. The test specimen is ignited by a pilot flaming ignition source at the end of the test chamber where the heat flux applied is highest. Exhibit S3.11 Flooring radiant panel tester apparatus. (Courtesy of Fire Testing Technology Ltd.) Life Safety Code Handbook 2009
1200 Supplement 3 Fire Tests for Life Safety Code Users Exhibit S3.12 Flooring radiant panel test showing carpet specimen and gas-fueled panel. The test chamber is calibrated by assigning a heat flux to each position along the length of the test chamber. Thus, the test method measures the heat flux at the point of flame out, which is when the material does not continue to support flaming, and that value is considered the CRF. The test specimens are required, to the extent possible, to simulate actual field installation practices. For example, if a carpet is to be mounted with a pad and/or an underlayment, it must be tested in that same way. The CRF provides a basis for estimating a critical aspect of fire exposure behavior for floor covering systems. It should be noted that this test is intended primarily for regulating floor coverings installed in building corridors, exits, and exit access corridors, which often have little or no combustible wall or ceiling finish. An occupancy with combustible finishes would be expected to contribute much more to fire hazard. The CRF is determined by measuring the distance that has burned. The test specimen is tested for 10 minutes following the exposure to a radiant energy source to a maximum of 1 W/cm 2. The distance burned is converted to a CRF value by plotting the distance on the standard radiant heat energy flux profile, as shown in Exhibit S3.14, which shows the calibration curve Exhibit S3.13 Flooring radiant panel schematic side elevation. >7.6 cm 15.2 cm 31.8 cm 10.2 cm 5.1 cm Thermocouples 71 cm 51 cm 10 cm 2.5 cm Radiating surface Gasfueled panel Chamber sheathing Material: inorganic millboard 0.74 g/cm 3 30 13 cm Specimen holder Specimen Pilot burner 14 cm 10.5 ± 1 cm Specimen transport system 137 cm 8.9 cm 140 cm Protective sleeve Radiation pyrometer Note: in. = cm x 0.3937. 2009 Life Safety Code Handbook