Paul Winski Syngenta Flowers Technical Services Introduction Growers are continually looking for ways to effectively control their pest problems, and the use of beneficial insects to do so continues to increase. Syngenta Bioline produces 37 different species of beneficial insects and mites for use in integrated crop management. ICM, a well-established practice for growers around the world, uses biological control agents as an alternative to, or in conjunction with, compatible pesticides. Greenhouses are an ideal environment for pests to live and breed, with an abundant supply of plant material on which to feed. These conditions can result in rapid multiplication of pests, which has, until recently, required regular and routine spray programs, which can lead to the development of strains that are resistant to the active ingredients. Bioline produces beneficial insects that are effective partners to chemicals, for use in ICM program, which also take into consideration chemical choice, usage and the growing system. Growers should plan any use of beneficial insects carefully and understand each greenhouse (pests, diseases, growing systems, rotations, etc.) and its particular problems. The better the understanding of all of these parameters, the better the results will be. The first step to a successful program is to think about the growing system and anticipated pests and diseases based on past growing seasons. The next step is to use natural enemies to correct for the problem; they should be of consistent quality and delivered in the best way. It can be difficult transitioning to an ICM program. Growers are often motivated by problems with existing pest-control methods or increasing demands by the market to produce crops with reduced chemical residues. Beneficial insect use has to be integrated into the operation, taking a number of parameters into account, including: Pest and disease risks Production system, plant varieties, rotations, environmental conditions, etc. Chemical controls available Chemicals used during the past three to four months (some are quite residual and can affect how beneficials establish) Vegetation surrounding the crop Origin of the plant material (some can arrive with pests and diseases) Careful attention to detail can ensure that an ICM program starts successfully, which will result in a quality crop. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 1
Greenhouse Pests and Their Control Aphids Typically, aphids are soft-bodied insects, from 1 to 4 mm long, which cluster around terminal shoots or under the leaves of plants. Most aphids have a pair of prominent tubular structures pointing backward on the rear of the body. They range from green to black in color, and individual species may have several color forms. Some produce wax that coats their bodies to create a gray or white appearance. Aphids are specialized feeders of plant sap: They insert their tubular mouthparts into the transport vessels on plant leaves, stems or roots, and feed on the sap. Because this sap is rich in sugars but lacks other nutrients aphids need, they excrete large amounts of excess sugars as honeydew. Aphid colonies can grow very rapidly, covering foliage and weakening the plant. Some species can produce distortion of the leaves. The copious amounts of honeydew they produce encourage the growth of sooty molds, which further weaken plants. Aphids are also important vectors of plant viruses. Control Options Adult Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid) Aphidius colemani (Aphiline c): Females seek out and parasitize aphids. Their most frequent host and main target is Aphis gossypii, the melon or cotton aphid, but they can also control Myzus persicae, the peach-potato aphid. Many other aphid species are reported as hosts, but less information is available about these. Once a female finds an individual aphid or aphid colony, she will palpate the aphids with her antennae. If they're the right size and haven't already been parasitized, she rapidly curls her abdomen under her body and stabs the aphid with her ovipositor. This takes less than a second, but in this time the female checks the identity of the aphid and lays an egg into it if she is satisfied. The egg soon hatches, and the resulting Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 2
larva begins to feed within the aphid. This won't kill the host at first, but as the larva grows, it will feed on the aphid's vital organs and kill it. When fully grown, the larva cuts a slit in the hollowed-out shell of its host and attaches the carcass to the substrate with silk. As it spins more silk within the host skin, it takes on a golden color and forms the characteristic "aphid mummy," where it pupates; after four or five days, an adult is ready to emerge. It cuts a circular trap door in the mummy, always on the upper surface at the back, and escapes to seek fresh hosts. Aphiline c. can be introduced at a low rate (for example, 0.1-0.5/10 ft.²) and released weekly during the period when aphids are most likely to arrive in the crop, usually in the spring or early summer. They locate and attack the first aphids to arrive, which can actually entirely prevent the development of colonies in some cases. Failing that, they can slow the growth of the colony, giving the grower more time to locate it and take further action to limit its expansion. Where colonies are already present, growers can use parasites correctively at a much higher rate, generally by releasing them immediately adjacent to the colonies. The adult females will quickly locate and attack the aphids. Where no previous releases have been made, the aphid population may grow very rapidly (up to 20 times in one week for some species), even after release of the parasitoids. It may take several generations for control to be achieved, and some alternative controls may be necessary. There are several insecticide treatments that are compatible with Aphidius, such as Endeavor. Aphidius colemani (Aphiline c) Aphidius ervi (Aphiline A): Females seek out and parasitize aphids. Their main targets are Macrosiphum euphorbiae and Aulacorthum solani. It is also commonly recorded for use on Acyrthosiphon pisum, the pea aphid, and research on the biology has been done on this species for Myzus persicae, the peachpotato aphid. The life cycle of Aphidius ervi is longer than that of Aphidius colemani at the same temperatures, and the parasite is larger and selects larger hosts. A. colemani reaches adulthood within 14 days at 70 F, while A. ervi takes nearly 19 days at the same temperature. At 59 F, the duration of the cycle is approximately 20 days for Aphidius colemani, while it is nearly 29 days for A. ervi. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 3
Aphidius ervi (Aphiline e) Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Aphidoline a): Adults are delicate flies that belong to the same group as fungus gnats or gall midges. The nocturnal adults are not predatory, but they lay eggs in colonies of aphids, and the larvae that hatch attack and feed on members of the colony. They are reported to feed on more than 60 different species of aphid. Adults are attracted by and feed on aphid honeydew, which extends adult life and increases the number of eggs females lay. The species of host aphid also has a marked effect on the egg production, as does the density of the aphid colonies. They lay between 40 and 250 eggs, more in denser colonies. Larvae attack aphids by biting the joints of their legs and injecting a toxin that paralyzes them. The aphid may leave the site of the attack, but the predator will follow it until it stops moving. Then it drains the body contents of the aphid. A single larva of A. aphidimyza can reach maturity on as few as five individuals of the aphid Myzus persicae. As day lengths decrease in autumn, the pupae of A. aphidimyza enter diapause, which restricts the use of the predator in crops without supplementary lighting, but even low light intensities may be sufficient to prevent diapause induction. The rate of application should be at least 10/10ft.² in and around aphid colonies. Lower rates of 5/10ft.² may be used more widely in the crop. Higher release rates will result in more rapid control of the aphid problem, while low rates may fail to control rapidly growing aphid populations. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 4
Aphidioletes aphidimyza (Aphidoline a) Spider Mites Red and two-spotted spider mites feed by puncturing plant cells and draining the contents, which produces a yellow speckling on the leaf surface. They also produce silk webbing that is clearly visible at high infestation levels. At very high infestation levels, reddish-brown masses of mites can be seen hanging from the tips of leaves. When populations of spider mite are this high workers can spread them around the crop after they're transferred accidentally to clothing. Mites enter an overwintering state known as diapause in autumn, and seek hiding places in the greenhouse or on equipment. When they emerge in the spring, they can re-infest the crop. Overwintering forms are usually bright red, but those also can occur later in the year. Adult Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae) Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 5
Control Options Phytoseiulus persimilis (Phytoline p): This is an active predatory mite that has specialized in feeding on mites in the family Tetranychidae. This includes the common red or two-spotted spiter mite, Tetranychus urticae, and the carmine mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus. Female P. persimilis lay eggs among colonies of spider mites. Eggs hatch to produce six-legged larvae, which don't need to feed, followed by protonymphal and deutonymphal stages. These two stages and the adult feed voraciously on all stages of the spider mite, although they may show a preference for eggs. They are adapted to move easily over and among the webbing produced by the spider mites. Research has shown that they are attracted to leaves damaged by spider mite attack from some distance away. They may also be attracted by spider mite webbing. Best results are obtained by releasing P. persimilis soon after spider mites first appear on the crop. This may occur during the spring in field crops, when conditions are suitable for diapause break. In protected crops, spider mites may enter diapause in September, but they can become active again at any time from early January. In continuously heated crops, or where artificial light is used to extend day length, the spider mites may remain active all year. Phytoseiulus persimilis (Phytoline p) Amblyseius andersoni (Anderline aa): Amblyseius andersoni is a predatory mite that can be used to control a range of mites. It is active at lower temperatures than other predatory mites, which means it can be introduced much earlier in the growing season than some others. They may not eat as much per day, but releasing in large numbers prevents the spider mite from establishing. Anderline aa works well in combination with Phytoline p. Where Phytoseiulus focuses on the hot spots, A. andersoni travels through the plant like a sniper. With this approach, they don t interfere with each other and make life very difficult for the spider mite. A. andersoni is, like other Amblyseius mites, a slow starter. An introduction is based on spider mite control in several weeks. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 6
Amblyseius andersoni (Anderline aa) Amblyseius cucumeris (Amblyline cu) Amblyline cu contains the predatory mite Amblyseius cucumeris; it was originally developed as a thrips control product, but it eats spider mites as well. By using the (mini) breeding sachets, it has been successfully used against spider mites in hanging baskets and garden mums. The success is based on the thousands of mites releasing from the breeding sachet. The breeding sachet provides mites over several weeks. Amblyseius cucumeris (Amblyline cu) Amblyseius californicus (Amblyline cal) Amblyseius (Neoseiulus) californicus is an active predatory mite that has specialised in feeding on mites in the family Tetranychidae, including the common red or two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, and the carmine mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus. It is less specialised than Phytoseiulus persimilis, and while it prefers to feed on spider mites, it can feed and reproduce on other arthropod prey or pollen. Where few spider mites are present, it is able to survive by feeding on these alternative food sources; it can persist in a crop longer than Phytoseiulus persimilis. A. californicus can be used in any situation in which P. persimilis would be used. It is normally recommended for use in conjunction with P. persimilis, or in areas of the crop where P. persimilis has previously failed because of hot, dry conditions. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 7
Whitefly Amblyseius californicus (Amblyline cal) The adult greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) holds its wings in a tentlike fashion, hiding its body and creating a triangular outline. This is in contrast to the sweet potato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), which holds its wings alongside its body, revealing its yellow body color and creating an elliptical profile. Whitefly adults generally settle on young foliage and lay their eggs close to the growing point of the plant. Eggs are creamy-white in color when first laid but turn black within 24 hours. The larvae that hatch are initially mobile and known as "crawlers." These soon settle, and they're immobile in the rest of the larval stages. In rapidly growing plants, this often leads to a stratification of whitefly ages on the plant, with adults and eggs at the top, young larvae a little lower, larger larvae toward the middle of the plant and pupae toward the base. Feeding larvae draw sap from the plant, extract proteins and other nutrients, and excrete the surplus sugars, which are present in the sap as honeydew. At high populations, the copious honeydew produced makes the leaves sticky and creates sooty molds, which restrict photosynthesis and are unsightly. Development is dependent upon temperature and may also vary by crop and cultivar. Adult Whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 8
Control Options Eretmocerus ermicus (Eretline e): This is a parasite of Trialeurodes vaporariorum and Bemisia tabaci. Upon finding a suitable host, a female palpates it with her antennae and inserts an egg between the host and the leaf surface. The larva that hatches from this egg burrows into the host larva, and a capsule forms around it. The larva initially lives within this capsule but is not apparently damaged by it. Females select mainly second-instar host larvae for parasitism but will lay eggs under other instars. Whiteflies parasitized by Eretmocerus do not develop the black color characteristic of Encarsia parasitism. They are harder to detect within the crop, and so more careful examination of the host is necessary. As pupae reach maturity, the darker yellow or orange of the adult can be seen with the naked eye. Eretmocerus eremicus is better adapted to high temperatures, and those that fluctuate strongly from day to night, than Encarsia formosa. Eretline e should always be used preventively, before whitefly populations establish. High release rates may be able to reduce existing populations, but the cost will be high, and it may be more appropriate to use a compatible insecticide such as Endeavor, pyriproxyfen or spiromesifen to reduce initial numbers. Eretmocerus eremicus (Eretline e) Encarsia formosa (Encarline f): This can be used in any crop where the greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) is the main pest. It should be released preventively and rates increased when the pest can be found. If whitefly populations become established before Encarsia are introduced, it is better to use a compatible chemical such as Endeavor, pyriproxyfen or spiromesifen to reduce the population. While it is still possible to gain control with Encarsia, this is not usually cost effective because of the high rates required Each of these wasps moves through the crop searching for whitefly larvae. When a female wasp finds a larva, she carefully examines it, palpating it with her antennae to determine whether it is the right type of whitefly and of an appropriate size to support her offspring. If so, she lowers the tip of her abdomen onto Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 9
the larva and carefully inserts an egg. When the Encarsia egg hatches, it consumes the whitefly from within. Initially, it feeds without killing its host, so that the whitefly continues to feed and grow, but as the host larva reaches maturity and ceases to feed, the parasite attacks the vital organs. At this point, the whitefly scale turns black, and about eight days later, a new Encarsia emerges to repeat the process. Almost all Encarsia formosa are female and will kill more whiteflies than they parasitize. Females prefer to lay eggs in third- and fourth-instar larvae, but if the host larvae they encounter are too small, they may still attack with their ovipositors. Instead of laying eggs, they will turn and feed on body fluids that leak from the larvae's wound. Host feedings increase their longevity and the number of eggs they can lay in their lives. In many cases, this will prove fatal to the whitefly. Encarsia formosa (Encarline f) Amblyseius swirskii (Swirskiline as): Amblyseius swirskii is a predatory mite that will reduce populations of Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum and significantly improve quality in crops grown in warm conditions. If applied early enough, Swirskiline may reduce or prevent whitefly infestation. Apply the product to crops as soon as night temperatures reach 59 F, and daytime temperatures are higher than 68 F. Earlier application, before temperatures are sufficiently high, can reduce or prevent establishment. Establishment will be most rapid on crops with ample pollen, as the pollen provides an alternative, high quality food source for the mites. Crops without pollen will result in slower establishment. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 10
Thrips Amblyseius swirskii (Swirskiline as) Adult thrips have delicate, hair-fringed wings that allow them to move through crops. Western flower thrip (Frankliniella occidentalis) adults are attracted by flower fragrances. Once in the flowers, they feed on pollen and on developing petals, causing blemishes. Some varieties and colors are more prone to damage than others. Thrips generally lay eggs in leaf tissue or developing fruit. Larvae are small, usually orange in color, and have only two feeding stages before dropping to the ground. In the upper layers of the soil, they form a nonfeeding pre-pupa, then a pupa, and at this stage they are vulnerable to some soil-dwelling predators such as Hypoaspis miles and Steinernema feltiae. Some pupation also can occur in the foliage. Frankliniella occidentalis is also responsible for transmission of numerous plant viruses, such as tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV), which both affect a wide range of ornamental crops. Virus diseases are generally acquired by first-instar larvae feeding on infected leaf tissue. These larvae are unable to transmit viruses until they become adults. Later larval stages and adults are unable to acquire the virus, but infected adults can transmit virus to fresh, uninfected plants, thus spreading the disease from plant to plant within the crop, and into new crops. Adult thrips (Frankiniella occidentalis) Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 11
Control Options Amblyseius swirskii (Swirskiline as): Amblyseius swirskii is a predatory mite that breeds extremely quickly under warm and humid environmental conditions. It preys on whiteflies, thrips and other pests. In the absence of prey, it can also survive on the plant, feeding on pollen or mold. It prefers a warm humid climate but can survive cooler nights during the winter months in semiprotected crops by moving closer to the ground, lower on the plants, where it benefits from the warmer microclimate. Amblyseius swirskii (Swirskiline as) Amblyseius cucumeris (Amblyline cu): Amblyseius cucumeris is a small predatory mite that feeds on a wide range of small arthropod prey, primarily thrips such as Frankliniella occidentalis. It can also be used for control of Tarsonemid mites and can reduce rust mite (Eriophyid) populations. It will also prey on spider mites. Because Amblyseius cucumeris is small, it feeds on only the smallest thrips larvae and cannot attack large larvae or adults. For best results, there should be as many predatory mites present as possible to prevent thrips larvae from reaching maturity. Amblyseius cucumeris (Amblyline cu) Orius insidiosus: This is a predatory bug that is often used in a program along with Amblyline cu in crops where it will quickly establish on the target pest and pollen. The Amblyseius introduction will control young thrips; the Orius complements it by feeding on adults. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 12
All mobile stages of Orius are voracious predators that will attack small arthropod prey of all types; they will also feed and complete their development on pollen. Females insert eggs into plant tissue so that only a small cap is visible at the surface. After about five days at 68 F, the egg hatches and a small, orange nymph emerges. These first instar nymphs are superficially similar to thrips larvae, and can be mistaken for them upon first inspection by the naked eye. There are five larval stages; at 68 F, development from egg laying to adulthood takes about 25 days. The quality and availability of food will have a significant effect on the development time. Orius characteristically hide in flowers and in the terminal shoots of plants where the leaves are tightly pressed together. All the mobile stages feed in the same way: Having identified potential prey, they extend the proboscis and insert it into the victim. After a few minutes, they've sucked out the body contents of the prey, causing it to deflate. Orius are known to abandon partially consumed prey item if they locate another; they actually kill far more than they need to reach maturity. Fungus Gnat and Shorefly Orius insidiosus (Oriline i) There are several species of fungus gnat that can cause problems, but Bradysia paupera seems to be the most commonly encountered. In the greenhouse, adults can be seen hovering in small clouds above prominent objects, especially where there are wet areas. They can occur in the same areas as shoreflies (Scatella spp), which feed on algae. It was thought that the adult fungus gnats were merely a nuisance and did not cause significant damage, arriving only when an existing fungal infection produced suitable food for the larvae. It has now been confirmed that the adult flies are responsible for the spread of some fungal diseases. Eggs are laid into moist soil or organic debris. The larvae are translucent white with no legs and a distinct black head, and about 1 centimeter long fully grown. They feed on fungi and decaying plant material, but they will also feed on live plant roots and can burrow into the stems of newly taken cuttings of plants such as poinsettias. Shoreflies, of the genus Scatella, are common in wet places and have a close association with algae. Adult flies are black and thick bodied, with short antennae. They are easily distinguished from fungus Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 13
gnats, which are slender and fragile in appearance, with long antennae. The larvae are short and very leathery in appearance, with a prominent "breathing horn" at the rear end. Unlike fungus gnats, there is no obvious black head on the larvae. They are normally closely associated with the wettest areas, where algae are common. Fungus gnat larvae Fungus gnat adult Shorefly adult Shorefly larvae Control Options Hypoaspis miles (Hypoline m): Hypoaspis miles is a predatory mite that preys on a range of soil organisms. It is pale brown and approximately 1 millimeter in length. Hypoaspis miles is normally found within the top 1 centimeter of soil, or in surface debris. It can also be seen moving over the surface of pots and benches. Females lay eggs among particles of soil or peat. At 68 F, these hatch after six days Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 14
and produce six-legged larvae. After two days, this is followed by protonymphal and deutonymphal stages, which feed actively for nearly 10 days before becoming adults. Total development from egg to adult at this temperature takes between 17 and 18 days, depending on the quality and quantity of available food. Because Hypoaspis miles is a generalist predator, it will also feed on a range of other soil organisms, including mature larvae of Frankliniella occidentalis that drop to the soil to pupate. Hypoaspis miles (Hypoline m) Atheta coriaria (Staphyline c): Atheta coriaria is a predatory beetle that feeds on soil-dwelling larvae of small Diptera species. A. coriaria prefers Sciarid and shorefly larvae and eggs, although thrips and other soil-dwelling insects may also be taken. The adults are 3-4 millimeters long and a brownish-black color, while the larvae are thin and a pale yellowish-white, darkening slightly in the later larval stages. These beetles are tolerant of a wide range of temperature, humidity, light, irrigation and soil conditions, making them suitable for year-round greenhouse use at lower temperatures than the predatory mite Hypoaspis miles. A. coriaria develops from an egg to an adult in approximately 21 days, depending on temperature and food resources. It passes through three larval instars prior to pupation and adulthood. All larval instars and adults are highly mobile. The winged adults are better able to disperse and colonize new areas of infestation once the immediate prey is exhausted. The normal life span and generation time is 21 days. For commercial purposes, the lowest recommended temperature is 54 F. Each female is reported to lay between 150 and 190 eggs at 70 F, with a 50:50 male-to-female ratio. At 77 F, the doubling time for the population is 5.3 days, making this a quick-to-establish predator. Mobile life stages of A. coriaria will kill and feed upon all developing stages of sciarid flies, though they perefer small- to medium-size larvae. Shoreflies are also highly predated. A. coriaria will kill many more individuals than it consumes at high prey densities. The number of prey individuals taken depends on the life stage of the predator, prey and relative availability as well as temperature, but an adult Atheta coriaria may consume up to 154 sciarid eggs in a day. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 15
Atheta coriaria (Staphyline c) Steinernema feltiae (Exhibitline sf): The nematodes in this product are known as "infective juveniles." They seek out suitable hosts by swimming in the thin film of water on soil particles, locating hosts by detecting carbon dioxide and other waste products. Once they find a host, they enter the body cavity through the mouth, anus or spiracles, and release the bacterium Xenorhabdus, which kills the host within hours. Nematodes grow and reproduce within the broth they produce. The next generation of infective juveniles then leaves the dead host and moves in search of fresh hosts. Infected hosts become brown and flaccid, but they can be difficult to find in soil. The nematodes are active at temperatures as low as 46 F, but the bacteria that they use to kill their hosts are not; soil must be a minimum of 57 F for the nematodes to work effectively. The bacteria is disabled above 79 F; use in high ambient temperatures can result in failure. Delivery Systems Steinernema feltiae (Exhibitline f) Getting the beneficial insects into the crop effectively and efficiently is the key to a good ICM program. Bioline has developed several unique delivery systems to make it easier for you to be successful. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 16
Controlled Release Sachets (CRS) Original CRS was developed by Syngenta Bioline Available as mini-sachets as well as the waterproof Gemini sachet o Mini-sachet: easy application, more release points and better establishment o Gemini sachet: patented design, waterproof, ideal for overhead irrigation systems, delivers more mites under wet conditions Amblyline cu Gemini Anderline aa mini-sachet Swirskiline as CRS Bugline o Laid onto the crop along the row o 75 percent labor savings compared to sachets Bugline Breeding system provides large numbers of mites over time and enables preventive control Easy to distribute, allows for more release points and better protection Continuous emergence for improved control Amblyseius andersoni: mite control, up to four weeks Amblyseius cucumeris: thrips and spider mite control, up to six weeks Amblyseius swirskii: whitefly and thrips control, up to four weeks Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 17
Blister Packs Novel delivery system protects unhatched cocoons against desiccation and predation Ensures high emergence rates Improved efficiency, ease of use and labor savings Eretmocerus eremicus (whitefly parasitoids): Controls both greenhouse and tobacco whitefly, good host finding behavior Eretline e blister pack Aphidoletes aphidimyza (aphid predator): Controls multiple types of aphids, improved predator establishment compared to loose product Aphidoline a blister pack For more information, contact flowers.tech.help@syngenta.com. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 18
2011 Syngenta Crop Protection, LLC., 410 Swing Road, Greensboro, NC 27409. Important: Always read and follow label instructions before buying or using this product. The label contains important conditions of sale, including limitations of remedy and warranty. Endeavor, and the Syngenta logo are trademarks of a Syngenta Group Company. Bioline/ICM White Paper - Page 19