E-waste Factsheet Number 31 / Nov 2007 WEEE: other side of the digital revolution AT A GLANCE Electronics are in our homes, our schools, our offices and even in our pockets. Electronic devices have become an integral part of our lives. Every year, computers get faster, TV screens get larger and MP3 players get smaller technology is getting better and is giving us products that are fancier, efficient and are more convenient to use. The quest for efficiency in a fast-paced world, the lure of slick marketing aimed at our disposable incomes, mass production of innovative high-tech products ipods, digital cameras, cell phones and personal computers these and the World Wide Web are the driving forces behind this growing dependence on electronics. Beneath this veneer of prosperity and progress lurks a dark reality. Resource consumption is increasing at an alarming rate. Combined with rapid product obsolescence and consumer preference for newer and better products, discarded electronics is now the fastest growing waste stream in the world. E- waste typically containing hazardous heavy metals and toxins such as lead, cadmium, beryllium and BFR (Brominated Flame Retardants) needs to be handled safely so that it does not jeopardize either the workers involved in recycling or the environment. WEEE (Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment) is a collective term used to define end of use or discarded electronic and electrical equipments such as computers, TVs, telecommunication devices such as cellular phones, audio and video devices, printers, scanners, household equipments like refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines and microwave ovens, to name a few. The hi-tech revolution and its impact The electronics industry is presently the world s largest and fastest growing manufacturing industry. The past three years have seen an exceptionally strong growth in the electronic equipment market, with worldwide revenue growing by 11 percent, 8.0 percent and E-waste has become the fastest growing waste stream in the world. India receives as much e-waste as it generates internally. Developed nations dump e-waste in developing Asian countries through illegal trade routes. In India, the recycling of e-waste is mostly done in the informal sector and releases deadly toxins in the environment, seriously damages the health of the people and the environment. Solutoins to the problem lie in making industry more responsible, developing standards and enacting suitable legislation. A child working at an informal recycling unit.
Toxics Link Factsheet Number 31 / November 2007 The UN Environment Programme estimates that up to 50 million tons of e- waste is generated annually worldwide and this is growing at a rate of 3 to 5 percent, each year 7.7 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. The strongest growth has been in categories such as PCs, mobile handsets and consumer-electronic products such as MP3 players and digital televisions. Non-IT consumer electronics too have witnessed a dramatic surge. The global sale of consumer electronics was estimated to exceed all expectations and touch an all time high of $135.4 billion in 2006, which indicates an 8 percent increase from 2005. By the year 2008, sales are projected at $158.4 billion; up by 65 percent over 2000. The last decade has also seen India emerging as one of the largest markets for electrical and electronic products. The UN Environment Programme estimates that up to 50 million tonnes of e-waste is generated worldwide annually and this is growing at a rate of 3-5% each year 1. In a 2006 report, the International Association of Electronics Recyclers projected that with the current growth and obsolescence rates of various consumer electronics, around 3 billion units will be scrapped during the rest of this decade, an average of about 400 million units a year 2. Though trade in e-waste is controlled by the Basel Convention, a global environmental agreement on the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes, e-waste from developed countries is still being shipped to Asia or Africa, where it often ends up as a hazardous toxic waste problem. Asian countries (India, Bangladesh, China and Pakistan) have emerged as the disposal markets for majority of this obsolete e-waste 3. Main recycling areas in and around metros City Delhi Mumbai Chennai Kolkata Area Shastri Park, Old Seelampur, Mandoli, Turkman Gate, Mayapuri, Meerut, Ferozabad Kurla, Saki Naka, Kamthipura, Grant Road,Jogeshwari, Malad New Moore Market, Puzhal, MEPZ, Urapakkam Chandni Chowk, Princep Street, Phoolbagan, Rajabazar, Howrah India: e-waste generation Preliminary studies have estimated that India might be generating around 1.5 lakh tonnes of WEEE annually. This is expected to grow to 8 lakh tonnes by 2012. Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh head the list of e-waste generating states 4. Among cities, Mumbai is estimated to be the highest generator of e-waste, followed by other metro cities like Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata and Bangalore. A study done by Toxics Link in 2007 estimated that Mumbai might alone be generating more than 19,000 tonnes of WEEE annually. Another study done jointly by Toxics Link and Centre for Quality Management Systems, Jadavpur University, Kolkata estimates around 9,000 tonnes of WEEE generation in the city of Kolkata. As electronics become cheaper, industry sources are projecting higher sales growth in smaller towns and cities, which would result in these centres emerging as new centres for e-waste generation. The main sources of e-waste in India are offices in the government, public and private sector. Electronic product and component manufacturers and individual households are next in line. The government, with its countrywide administration network, continues to be the major consumer of electrical and electronic products. Important government departments like Railways, Defense and Health are estimated to generate very large volumes of e-waste. Manufacturers of electronic and electrical products are also a significant contributor to e-waste. The waste from this sector comprises of components rendered defective during the production process. 1 E-waste, the hidden side of TI equipment s manufacturing and use, Environment Alert Bulletin, UCEP, January 2005. 2 International Association of Electronics Recyclers Industry Report, 2006. 3 Brigden and others 2005, UNEP 2005b 4 IRGSSA Report Categories of WEEE Three categories of WEEE account for almost 90% of the generation: WEEE category % Large household appliances... 42.1% Information and communication technology equipment... 33.9% Consumer electronics... 13.7% 2
Recycling of Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) This is one of the most hazardous processes in e- waste recycling. It involves a number of steps, which are not just occupational hazards but also harmful to the environment. Firstly, the integrated circuits (ICs), chips, gold pins, condensers, etc, are removed through manual processes, which also includes loosening of the lead solder through surface heating. The stripped PCBs are then sent for copper recovery which is done through two processes. In open burning the boards are heated to extract the thin layer of copper foils in the PCBs. In the Acid Bath process, the circuit boards are dipped in acid for few hours for desoldering. The lead sludge that collects in the bottom is recovered and sold. After a water bath, the delsoldered PCBs are boiled with a caustic soda solution and manual scrubbing is done to remove the paint. The PCBs are again dipped in an acid solution for few hours which results in copper sulphate formation. Iron wires are added to the solution and the sludge contained copper settles in the bottom. The acid solution is drained out to recover the sludge which is dried, powdered and sold in the market. Individual households are perhaps the lowest contributor to e-waste at this point, as personal computer penetration still continues to be very low in India. Another reason for low output of e-waste from households is the extended use of computers, as most individuals tend to prolong the usage by passing on old computers to friends and family, thus extending the productive life span of the equipment. However, individual households are responsible for large-scale generation of e-waste from consumer durables such as televisions, refrigerators, air conditioners, etc. The trend of extended usage is also changing; faster technological advancements and lower product costs are directly leading to higher domestic e-waste generation in India. India: major import destination Developing countries, including India, have been destination ports for various types of hazardous wastes from the developed world. E-waste is no exception. Industrialised nations are scrounging for space for landfills to dispose the huge amount of e- waste being generated by them. Moreover, with strict environmental regimes, especially in European countries, the cost of waste disposal is also increasing. As per available data, the cost of recycling a single computer in the United States is US$ 20 while the same could be recycled A study done by Toxics Link in 2007 estimates that Mumbai might alone be generating more than 19,000 tonnes of WEEE annually in India for only US$2, a gross saving of US$18 if the computer is exported to India. Most developed countries, thus, find it financially profitable to dump e-waste in developing countries. Lack of stringent environmental regulations, weak enforcement mechanisms, cheap raw materials and labour, an ill-informed population and the unorganised nature of the sector contribute to the growing imports of e-waste in India. Even though the import of e-waste is legally banned in India, there are many reports of such waste landing at Indian ports under different nomenclature, like mixed metal scrap or as goods meant for charity. Accurate data on such imports is not available largely owing to the informal nature of the trade. However, estimates suggest that imports of e-waste account for an amount almost equal to that being generated in the country. Toxic menace The e-waste crisis is not only of quantity but also a crisis born out of toxic ingredients such as lead, mercury and cadmium, to name a few that poses occupational and environmental health threats. Electronic devices contain a complex mixture of materials and components, often containing several hundreds of different substances, many of which are toxic and create serious problem if not handled properly. These include heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and flame-retardants such as polybrominated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenylethers (refer table on page 5). E-waste recycling in India Recycling of e-waste, especially equipments like computers and mobile phones, is a highly lucrative business on account of extraction of valuable metals like gold, copper, lead, etc. In India, recycling is carried out in an informal set up which has a vast network of collection, storage, segregation and material recovery facilities. This trade has mostly grown on the fringes of larger cities. As the size of this informal trade has grown, the trade is seeing a shift from larger cities to the periphery of smaller towns. The e-waste trade chain, though informal and clandestine in nature, works like a well-oiled machine well networked, adapting itself to an excellent hierarchy of control and distribution. The sector has excellent outreach points and its ability to access materials from the most remote locations and then getting them back to mainstream trade is highly efficient. The sector has also a very clear understanding of the materials involved in e-waste recycling and its financial benefits. The dismantling and recycling process is highly rudimentary in nature, causing extensive damage to both the environment and human health. Hazardous processes like burning of PVC cables to get 3
copper or the use of acid bath to extract valuable metals from circuit boards, CRT regunning, heating of circuit boards to loosen the soldering, open burning of components, etc, are done in crowded and residential areas. Many of these units not only endanger the lives of the workers engaged in these activities but also put the residents of surrounding localities at risk. The recycling operations involve a large section of the population, which is dependent on this trade for their livelihoods. Most workers engaged in this trade are migrant unskilled labourers who take up this livelihood as a means for survival. A large number of women and children are also employed in different stages of these operations, thus exposing them to toxic processes. The role of the informal sector in managing such complex waste has been a subject of debate. No dount, it is on account of their innovativeness that a large percentage of the material from this waste is retrieved and circulated back instead of tonnes of e- waste being sent to landfills or incinerated in other countries. The real cause of concern is not the informal trade chain but the processes involved in segregation and recovery of metals from the waste. The crucial aspect of this issue is the extensive dispersal of toxins in the environment which can have lonterm repercussions. Toxic metals like lead and mercury are not recovered completely and are released into the environment. Open burning of plastics can lead to dioxin and furan emissions, which are well-known carcinogens. Workers often use acid baths to dissolve lead, silver and other metals contained in the electronics, washing the residues directly into nearby land or water bodies. Acid used in the processes leach into the soil, as they are thrown indiscriminately after use. The recycling activities cause major damage to the environment, contaminating air, water and soil. Most workers here are still unaware of the health and environmental risks associated with e-waste. Components that cannot be recycled are dumped or burned in the open, releasing additional toxins into the environment. Some of the immediate and long-term impacts of the current practices can be:! Release of toxics into air, water and soil.! Health concerns of the workers involved directly in such operations.! Loss of resources due to low recovery of materials because of the rudimentary processes used. The last four years of conversations and studies on e-waste have also resulted in setting up of formal recycling facilities in the country. The facilities use a mix of local and imported technology for handling this waste and have been approved by the State Pollution Control Boards. Current Indian legislation India has no law that specifically deals with e- waste or lays down the process for its collection and disposal. The current legislation on Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling), 2003, covers various aspects including the generation, storage, transportation and disposal of hazardous waste but this is more equipped to handle the issue of large industrial houses generating waste or traders of hazardous waste as well as the facility managers of such waste. In the case of e-waste, the generation is multipoint with offices and households contributing to a large extent, and hence this regulation falls short of addressing the issue of e-waste in totality. The import and export of hazardous substances is also dealt with under the same regulation. The rule deals with individual components but not with the whole computer as waste scrap. This is a big loophole, which permits the import of computers in the country. The import of such waste is also allowed for the purpose of material recovery but only after obtaining prior permission from the concerned authority, in this case the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board). The import policy for computers is fairly liberal and allows second hand computers (upto 10 years old) to be brought in the country as donations. This is a major loophole and reports have verified that most computers, which come under this category, are junk and non-usable. The Basel Convention on Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Waste, to which India is a signatory, also addresses the issue of the import of electronic waste. Lists A and B of the Convention enumerate such waste and their imports are regulated. The Convention prohibits the import/trans boundary movement of such waste from an OECD to a non-oecd country. Global movement towards solutions The European Union and several European countries are leading the world on take-back initiatives and toxic materials phase-outs in electronic equipment. They have adopted two directives regarding electronic products: WEEE (The Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment) and RoHS (The Restriction on Hazardous Substances). Directives 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment and 2002/96/EC on waste electrical and electronic equipment are designed to tackle this increasing waste stream. The WEEE Directive is a legislation from the European Union (EU) that encourages and regulates the collection, reuse, recycling, and recovery of waste electrical and electrical equipment. It aims to minimise the impact of electrical and electronic goods on the environment by increasing re-use and recycling and reducing the amount of WEEE going to E-waste Asian countries (India, Bangladesh, China and Pakistan) have emerged as the disposal markets for majority of e-waste 4
Toxics Link Factsheet Number 31 / November 2007 E-waste Hazards of chemicals found in e-waste Substance Occurrence in e-waste Environmental and health relevance HALOGENATED COMPOUNDS PCB Condensers, transformers Cause cancer, effects on the immune system, (polychlorinated biphenyls) reproductive system, nervous system, endocrine system and other health effects. Persistent and bio-accumulative. TBBA (tetrabromo- Fire retardants for plastics (thermoplastic components, Can cause long-term period injuries to health. bisphenol-a) cable insulation). TBBA is presently the most widely used Acutely poisonous when burned. PBB (polybrominated flame retardant in printed wiring boards and covers for biphenyls) components. PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Cooling unit, insulation foam Combustion of halogenated substances. May cause toxic emissions. PVC (polyvinyl chloride) Cable insulation High temperature processing of cables. May release chlorine, which is converted to dioxins and furans. HEAVY METALS AND OTHER METALS Arsenic Small quantities in the form of gallium arsenide within Acutely poisonous and on a long-term light emitting diodes perspective injurious to health. Barium Getters in CRT May develop explosive gases (hydrogen) if wetted Beryllium Power supply boxes which contain silicon controlled Harmful if inhaled rectifiers, beam line components Cadmium Printer inks, toners, fluorescent layer (CRT screens) Acutely poisonous and injurious to health on a Rechargeable NiCd-batteries, photocopying machines long-term perspective Chromium VI Data tapes, floppy-disks Acutely poisonous and injurious to health on a long-term perspective causes allergic reactions Gallium arsenide Light-emitting diode (LED) Injurious to health Lead CRT screens, batteries, printed wiring boards Causes damage to the nervous system, circulatory system, kidneys. Causes learningdisabilities. Lithium Li-batteries May develop explosive gases (hydrogen) if wetted. Mercury Fluorescent lamps that provide backlighting in LCDs, Acutely poisonous and injurious to health on a some alkaline batteries and mercury wetted switches long-term perspective Nickel Rechargeable Ni Cd-batteries, NiMH-batteries, electron gun May cause allergic reactions Rare earth elements Fluorescent layer (CRT-screen) Irritates skin and eyes Selenium Older photocopying-machines (photo drums) High levels may cause adverse health effects Zinc sulphide Interiors of CRT screens, mixed with rare earth metals Toxic when inhaled 5
Toxics Link Factsheet Number 31 / November 2007 E-waste E-waste system in different countries Countries PRO Fee system Legislation Switzerland SWICO ARF- consumer Yes Norway Elektronikkretur Producers fee Yes Japan Different groups Disposal cost-consumers Yes Belgium RECUPEL ARF-consumers+Producers fee Yes India None No Some of the basic principles of environmental justice such as the precautionary principle and polluter pays should be the overriding factors to design solutions landfills. It sets collection, recycling and recovery targets for all types of electrical goods. The directive seeks to achieve this by making producers responsible for financing the collection, treatment, and recovery of waste electrical equipment. This will also provide incentives to design electrical and electronic equipment in an environmentally efficient way. The electronic and electrical goods covered by the WEEE Directive include: large and small household appliances, IT and communication equipment, consumer entertainment equipment, lighting products, electronic toys, leisure and sports equipment, medical devices, monitoring and control equipment, automatic dispensers, etc. The Directive requires four kg of e-waste to be recycled per person. The RoHS Directive aims to minimise the environmental impact of e-waste by reducing the quantities of four heavy metals and two brominated flame retardants which it may contain. In order to prevent the generation of hazardous waste, RoHS Directive requires the substitution of heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, and hexavalent chromium) and brominated flame retardants (polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) in new electrical and electronic equipment put on the market from July 1, 2006. The European Union s directives were officially enacted in February 2003. Various other countries like Japan, South Korea and Taiwan have also initiated take-back programmes to ensure that e-waste is handled in a sound manner. Recently China enacted its own WEEE and RoHS to manage this critical waste. The cost of recycling in these systems are managed through various fee systems like Advance Recycling Fee and disposal cost charged to the consumers, Producer paying for the recycling etc. The table above shows the e-waste management system followed in different countries. Looking for a solution In view of the magnitude of the problem, there is an urgent need to find sustainable way of managing the growing e-waste. The concept of product stewardship or shared responsibility by all parties involved in the design, manufacture, sale and use of a product for the environmental impacts of that product over its entire useful life has the potential to revolutionise how we manage waste in the country. One of the foremost requirements is to have a suitable legislation on electronic and electrical waste, which addresses the issues of imports and domestic generation of waste. Any solution to these issues needs to be seen in the broader context of sustainable development. Some of the basic principles of environmental justice such as the precautionary principle and polluter pays should be the overriding factors to design solutions. EPR (Extended Producers Responsibility) is perceived to be the most appropriate framework that attempts to amalgamate all the enlisted principles of environmental justice. This framework shifts the responsibility of safe disposal to the producers. It not only looks at downstream solutions but also at upstream technology. It promotes a sound environment management technology and aims at better raw material and cleaner production technology. If manufacturers share the responsibility for recycling their products then they have an immediate incentive to design products that are easily recycled and less toxic. Constitution of Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO), a consortium of the manufacturers can be very crucial in dealing with the issue of e- waste. The existing recycling industry, formal and informal, has shown that e-waste recycling is financially viable. We need an enabling regulation which will ensure supply of material and also provide incentives for development of sound technology. Compiled and written by Priti Mahesh, Senior Programme Officer, Clean Industry Programme. For more information, please contact: INFO@TOXICSLINK.ORG Toxics Link H2 (Ground Floor), Jungpura Extension New Delhi 110 014 T: +91-(0)11-24328006, 24320711 E: info@toxicslink.org Designed and produced by Splash! Communications, e-mail intouch@splashontheweb.com, Illustration by Vishwajyoti Ghosh