contents Preface Acknowledgments xiii xvi Noncontact Ring-Laser Metrology Systems CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Metals 1 1.2.1 Aluminum from Planes to Cars 6 1.3 Composites Black Metal 9 1.4 Summary 13 Reference 15 CHAPTER 2 System Components 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Optical Probe 22 2.3 Camera 25 2.4 Probe-Camera Assembly 27 2.5 Machine Vision Software Package 28 2.6 Hole-Bore Location Guidance System 29 2.7 Summary 30 CHAPTER 3 Operation 33 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Measurement Capabilities 33 3.3 Diagnostics Capabilities 34 vii
viii Contents 3.4 Analytics Capabilities 34 3.5 Composite Capabilities 35 3.6 Speed and Repeatability Capabilities 35 3.7 Strategic Impact 35 3.8 Utility 36 3.9 Composite Applications 37 3.10 Tactical Impact 38 3.11 Uncollected In-process Costs 38 3.12 Improving Design 39 3.13 Explanation of Automated Gauge Operation 40 3.13.1 The Basics 40 3.13.2 Gauge Integration and Operation 42 3.14 Explanation of Handheld Gauge Operation 45 3.15 The De-stack Solution 46 3.16 Summary 49 CHAPTER 4 Application 51 4.1 Introduction 51 4.2 Familiarity Overcoming the Norm 52 4.3 How Much Is Too Much? 53 4.4 Current Processes 55 4.4.1 Hand Drill Hole-Bores Using an Air Operated Drill Motor with Multiple Drill Bits in Progressive Steps, Countersink, Clean, and Measure 55 4.4.2 Mechanized Drilling Using Power Feed Motors to Drill Hole-Bores with Multiple Drill Bits in Progressive Steps, Countersink, Clean, and Measure 56 4.4.3 On-assembly Automated Drilling, or Drilling and Countersinking Using a Numeric Controlled Precision Drill and Countersinking End Effector 58 4.5 Application with Replication 59 4.5.1 Hand Drill/Countersink Gauging 59 4.5.2 Mechanized Drill/Countersink Gauging 60
Contents ix 4.5.3 Automated Drill/Countersink Gauging 60 4.5.4 Combined Operation Teaming Application 61 4.6 Application Strategy 62 4.7 Summary 62 References 63 CHAPTER 5 Extensibility 65 5.1 Introduction 65 5.2 From the 60s to Late 70s 66 5.3 Late 70s to Late 80s 66 5.4 Late 80s to Late 90s 67 5.5 Late 90s to Late 2000s 67 5.6 Today 67 5.7 Competitive Alternatives 68 5.7.1 Gauges 68 5.7.1.1 Features 68 5.7.1.2 Shortcomings 68 5.8 Other Emerging Technologies 69 5.8.1 Capacitive Sensing 69 5.8.2 Confocal Sensing 70 5.9 Summary of Single Noncontact Gauging Solution 70 5.10 Extensibility Market Size 71 5.11 Addressable Market 72 5.12 Gauge/Measurement Tool Investment 74 5.12.1 Manual Gauge Analysis (Current Operating Model) 74 5.12.2 Single-Gauge Replacement (Aeroscan Type) Analysis 75 5.12.3 Industry Analysis 75 5.12.4 Total Projections 75 5.12.5 Replacing Current Manual Gauges 76 5.12.6 Incorporating into Automated (Replace Manual) 77 5.13 MRO In Service 77 5.14 Tooling 79 5.15 Training 81 Reference 81
x Contents CHAPTER 6 Summary 83 6.1 Introduction 83 6.2 Capabilities 84 6.2.1 Measurement Capabilities 85 6.2.2 Diagnostics Capabilities 85 6.2.3 Analytics Capabilities 85 6.2.4 Composite Capabilities 85 6.2.5 Speed and Repeatability Capabilities 86 6.2.6 Multiple Hole-Bore Size Capabilities 86 6.3 Components 86 6.3.1 Optical Probe 86 6.3.2 Machine Vision Software Package 86 6.3.3 Hole-Bore Location Guidance System 87 6.3.4 Field Calibration Methods 88 6.3.5 Back-End Solution 88 6.4 Why This Gauge Is a Noninvasive and Disruptive Technology 88 6.5 Strategic Impact 91 6.6 Utility 92 6.7 Composite Applications 93 6.8 Tactical Impact 94 6.9 Costs of Airframe Manufacturing, Uncollected In-process Costs 95 6.10 Summary 95 References: Applicable Gauge Patents 96 Nondestructive Adhesive Bond-Line Inspection CHAPTER 7 Introduction 99 7.1 Introduction 99 7.2 Models to Machines 100 7.3 Complexities of Adhesives 102 7.4 Black Metal to Black Gold 106
Contents xi 7.4.1 Unified Structure 107 7.4.2 Adhesive Bonding 108 7.4.3 Z-Pins 110 7.5 Technology Solution 111 7.6 Summary 112 References 113 CHAPTER 8 Application 115 8.1 Introduction 115 8.2 Composite Bonding Definitions 116 8.2.1 Co-curing 116 8.2.2 Co-bonding 116 8.2.3 Adhesive Bonding (Secondary Bonding) 116 8.3 Metal Bonding 117 8.4 Adhesive Bond Function Theory 117 8.5 Basic Bonding Requirements 119 8.6 Bond Strength and Durability 119 8.7 Understanding Bond Failures 120 8.8 Identification of Adhesive Bond Failures 121 8.9 Adhesion Failures 122 8.10 Failure of Composite Bonds 124 8.11 Summary: Substantiation of Structural Integrity 125 References 128 CHAPTER 9 Operation 131 9.1 Introduction 131 9.2 Laser-Generated Stress Waves 132 9.3 Laser Bond Inspection Development 133 9.4 Laser Bond Inspection Test Results 137 9.5 Laser Bond Inspection System 143 9.6 Summary 146
xii Contents Acknowledgment 146 References 146 CHAPTER 10 Extensibility 149 10.1 Introduction 149 10.2 Composite Bonding Definitions 151 10.2.1 Co-curing 151 10.2.2 Co-bonding 151 10.2.3 Adhesive Bonding (Secondary Bonding) 151 10.3 Metal Bonding 152 10.4 Types of Bond-Lines 152 10.5 Complementary Technologies 155 10.5.1 Case Study: Wide-Area Inspection 156 10.6 Bond-Line Deficiency Discovery and Mitigation 157 10.7 Summary 158 Additional Reading 159 References 159 CHAPTER 11 Summary 161 11.1 Introduction 161 11.2 Adding Complexity 163 11.3 Repair 164 11.3.1 Repair During Manufacture 164 11.3.2 Repair Operational Damage 165 11.4 Maintenance 168 11.5 Safety 168 11.6 Summary 170 References 171 CHAPTER 11 Closing Words 173 12.1 Technology Evolution 173 Additional Reading 179