A genealogy of arches: A confluence of Western and Orient influences Table of Contents 1. Architecture as a continuity of cultures... 2 2. The arch form: Transitions and transformations... 3 3. Generalife - Merging the orient and the West... 11 References... 14 1
1. Architecture as a continuity of cultures Huntington s (1996) provocative clash of civilisations thesis has stirred much controversies and furore among scholars and policymakers alike, with detractors slanting it as being xenophobic and advocators praising its bold and visionary perspective. Huntington s (1996) theory has since been adapted to a discussion of the West and Islamic worlds, in particular a distancing and opposition relating to differences in religious and political values (Norris and Inglehart, 2002). The divide between the West and Islam worlds has also been described by Hurd (2003, pp. 32) as a means by the West to appropriate, dominate, colonise or commodify, stating that Orientalist conventions served as vehicles through which Americans were able to negotiate the difference of Islam on a cultural level as a means of counteracting its threat as a contending ethos. [ ] domesticating [Islam s] alterity as a resource of significant power for framing their own cultural enterprises. This chapter seeks to demonstrate that unlike contemporary political ideologies which emphasise differentiation, division and power struggles between Western and Islamic worlds, Islamic architecture emerged out of a unification of ideologies between the East and the West. The author argues that Islamic architecture is emblematic of a multilayering of chronological strata, inheriting the traditions and knowledge of the Greek, Persian and Roman civilisations which were conquered. In particular, features such as the aqueducts, arches and great roads of the Roman Empire, Byzantine basilicas and mosaics and Persian pointed and horseshoe arches were being adapted into the Islamic architecture of aristocratic and religious buildings ranging from palaces to castles to mosques to shrines and tombs (Stimson, 2012). Not only does Islamic architecture survive as a living testimony to the excellent craftsmanship and unparalleled engineering feats of ancient civilisations, the vault and dome constructions in Islamic architecture has also been influential in informing the architectural language of the West, namely the European Gothic (The Observer,1933). The capacity of Islamic architecture to converge architectural thoughts and developments across multiple centuries and cultures has led to the designation of 2
several Islamic architectural monuments by UNESCO as being the finest heritage sites worthy of praise and conservation. Examples can be seen in the Moorish monuments of Alhambra in Granada and in the historic centre of Cordoba which constitutes mosques, gardens and fountains, citadels, light and elegant palaces, all of which adorn unique features of domes, porticos, colonnades, stalactites, colour mosaics and arabesques (UNESCO, 1984). Another example is in the capital of Baghdad, which embodies a confluence of cultural influences from Persian architectural traditions and Central Asian styles into its Abbasid architecture which marks the beginnings of the Islamic Golden Age (Blair, 2011). Central Islamic architectural features include arches with foliate decorations, pendant vaults, muqarnas and polychrome interlaced spandrels. Evident from both the above examples of magnificent Islamic architecture is that arches, in the forms of multi-foil, horseshoe, pointed, transverse and ogee, were the distinctive elements. Arches had both a symbolic significance as well as a utilitarian function, enabling builders to construct mosques with vast expanses of space and light to exude grandeur and beauty, and allowing a subtle segregation of sacred and secular spaces. In view of the dominance of arches in Islamic architecture, this paper seeks to explore the historic Western origins of the arches, Islamic interpretations and transformations of the arch form and the travelling of the Islamic arch back to Western architecture in Europe. 2. The arch form: Transitions and transformations The arch originated from as early as the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia. Arches originated in the tombs of Egyptians and Greeks which were made mainly of stone, existing in the form of a lintel, with corbelling to remove the direct overbearing (Arnold, 1991). Early examples are in the Tholos tomb of Clytemnestra (1300-1250BC) in Greece (see Figure 1) and the Pyramid of Meidum (2610-2600BC) in Egypt which has a corbelled roof of seven steps (see Figure 2). The use of arches during this period was more for a practical function of relieving stresses produced by the walls and protecting the horizontal thoroughfare beneath (Arnold, 1991). As such, arches were 3
mainly confined to the architecture of crypts and not adopted in monumental architecture such as temples. Figure 1: Tholos tomb of Clytemnestra Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/12261408044/ Figure 2: Pyramid of Meidum Source: http://www.narmer.pl/pir/snofru_en.htm#1architecture: Arch 4
True arches appeared in Egyptian architecture much later when construction with mud bricks necessitated the arch form. A barrel vault emerged in Djoser s great mastaba, constructed with bricks wedged together and bonded from above using mortar and gravel (Petrie, 1883). Similarly, the 12 th dynasty pyramid at Hawara consists of a brick arch an approximate one meter thick, erected on top of the rock burial chamber and passageways, dividing and supporting the upper part of the pyramid which is made up of bricks laid in sand and limestone covering (Petrie, 1883) (see Figure 3). Figure 3: Pyramid at Hawara Source: http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/building/elements.htm It was only during the Roman times that the arch form was more fully developed and exploited in a variety of architectural structures such as bridges, aqueducts and large scale developments. The Romans borrowed the idea of the true arch and sought to increase the span of the form, inventing the idea of propping the arch on top of two tall pedestals to span walkways. 5
The semi-circular arch works to dissipate the load forces along the curve of the arch, to be transmitted down to the end supports (abutments) which carry the entire load of the bridge (see Figure 4). Such an arch action gives elasticity to the arch, enabling large spans to be achieved and hence its common use in bridges and aqueducts (Ambrose, 2012, pp.32). Semicircular arches are often placed in line, side to side to create an arcade, such as in the Roman aqueducts (see Figure 5) (Oleson, 2008, pp. 299). Figure 4: Semicircular arch action Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/arch#/media/file:arch_illustration.svg 6
Figure 5: Nero s aqueduct with semi-circular arch form Source: http://www.rome.info/ancient/aqueducts/ The Roman arches were utilitarian as it served the function of creating vast edifices with the humblest of materiality and the most efficient use of materials, with its merit leading to its use in large-scale constructions such as amphitheaters, triumphal arches, temples, palaces, bridges and aqueducts. One of the most magnificent Roman architectural structure constructed out of concrete vaulted arches supported by strong heavy limestone is the Colosseum built in 70-80AD (see Figure 6) (Sinclair, 2014). 7
Figure 6: The Colosseum Source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/02412/colosseum_2412363b.jpg The Roman arches persisted long after the collapse of Roman power, in the Romanesque architecture of the Normans (Gardner, Kleiner and Mamiya, 2004). The arch form underwent further adaptations and were incorporated into cathedrals in both the simple as well as pointed arch forms, such as in the Cathedral of Monreale (see Figure 7). It appears that the outer facade reflected mostly Roman influences with three semi-arches (see Figure 7), while the principal doorways consisted of pointed arches which reflected influences of the Byzantine, Arab and Norman-French styles (see Figure 8). 8
Figure 7: Exterior façade of Cathedral of Monreale Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/monreale#/media/file:monreale_cathedral_exterior_b W_2012-10-09_10-23-10.jpg Figure 8: Doorway of Cathedral of Monreale Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/monreale#/media/file:monreale-bjs-3.jpg 9
The presence of Islamic influences in Romanesque cathedrals may be explained by the evolution of the Islamic arch during the same period, with tremendous advances made in the arch forms by the Muslims, developing the pointed, horseshoe-shaped and stacked arches to be used in mosques. The most common uses of arches in Islamic architecture are in arcades lining mosque courtyards or courtyard houses. The design of the pointed arches was an innovative breakthrough as it increased the spanning distance further, allowing for larger vistas, such as in the Dome of the Rock (see Figure 9) built in 691AD or the White Mosque in Ramla in 759AD. Figure 9: Dome of the Rock Source: http://www.biblewalks.com/photos54/domerock9.jpg Another arch typology of the early Islamic period is that of the horseshoe which were developed in Spain and North Africa among the Visigoths and later adopted by the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada. Early indications of the horseshoe may be seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria (see Figure 10), and later in the hypostyle hall in the Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain. Unlike its predecessors which designed arches for its utilitarianism, arches existed in Islamic architecture also as a form of visual aesthetics, particularly in the horseshoe form which facilitated the achievement of 10
greater height, visual rhythm and pattern in the arch and arcade designs as compared to the semi-circular form (Gardner, Kleiner and Mamiya, 2004, pp.325). Figure 10: Great Mosque of Damascus Source: http://www.britannica.com/topic/great-mosque-of-damascus/imagesvideos/interior-of-the-great-mosque-of-damascus-in-syria/126708 The entry of the horseshoe arch into the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain laid the way for a travelling of Islamic architectural influences to Europe, through the architects, scholars, builders living in the northern Christian area of Andalusia (Trend, 1931). Islamic interpretations of the arches have since influenced architecture in western regions and the architectural language of the West, such as in the horseshoe arches of Moorish architecture in the northern Spanish areas (Dobbs, 1994) and the pointed arch forms in European Gothic architecture (Hill, 1993). 3. Generalife - Merging the orient and the West Generalife in Granada is an example of Moorish architecture in Spain, built between the 12 th and 14 th century as a place of respite for Muslim royalty. It was meant to serve 11
as a rural villa in Alhambra region, complete with decorative gardens, exquisite landscaping and courts. As one of the oldest surviving Moorish gardens, the Generalife s Patio de la Acequia adopted horseshoe arches as a key element in the garden design, such as in the five stuccoed horseshoe arches in the south pavilion (see Figure 11). Figure 11: Generalife s Patio de la Acequia Source: http://www.davidpride.com/europe/spain/sp_gra_17.htm 12
Despite its Moorish origin and its European geography, Generalife exudes a sense of Orientalism, bearing the creativity of Islamic architectural elements such as the horseshoe arches, courtyards, muqarnas and tiled motifs. The genealogy of arch design demonstrates the horseshoe arch of Moorish Generalife to be one which drew inspiration from its Greek, Egyptian and Roman counterparts, improving on the semicircular form to become a functional, vast spanning decorative element. The Islamic interpretations of arches continue to live on through the works of their European counterparts, bearing testimony to the power of architecture in uniting cultures and the timelessness of innovative works of art. Within the space of Generalife itself, Western touches interact with Islamic art as Generalife was subjected to reconstructions and modifications into a cathedral following its fall into Christian hands. 13
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