Semiconductor Radiation Detectors

Transcription

1 Gerhard Lutz Semiconductor Radiation Detectors Device Physics With 167 Figures and 11 Tables

2 Contents 1. Introduction 1 Part I: Semiconductor Physics 5 2. Semiconductors Crystal Structure Energy Bands Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors Carrier Transport in Semiconductors Drift Diffusion Magnetic Field Effects Carrier Generation and Recombination in Semiconductors Thermal Generation of Charge Carriers Generation of Charge Carriers by Electromagnetic Radiation Generation by Charged Particles Shape of a Radiation-Generated Charge Cloud Multiplication Processes Recombination Charge-Carrier Lifetime Carrier Lifetime in Indirect Semiconductors Simultaneous Treatment of Carrier Generation and Transport Summary and Discussion Basic Semiconductor Structures The p-n Diode Junction A p-n Diode in Thermal Equilibrium A p-n Diode with Application of an External Voltage A p-n Diode Under Irradiation with Light Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics Breakdown Under Strong Reverse Bias Metal-Semiconductor Contact 56

3 VIII Contents Current-Voltage Characteristics Ohmic Contact Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Structure Thermal Equilibrium Condition The Si-Si0 2 MOS Structure Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics Nonequilibrium and a Return to Equilibrium The n+-n or p + -p Structures Summary and Discussion 73 Part II: Semiconductor Detectors Semiconductors as Detectors The Properties of Intrinsic Semiconductor Materials Properties of Extrinsic Semiconductor Materials Doping of Semiconductors Bulk Defects Effects on Material Properties Insulators and Metals Insulator Properties Semiconductor Surface Defects Metal Properties Choice of Detector Material Interaction of Radiation with Semiconductors Charge Collection and Measurement Precision Detectors for Energy and Radiation-Level Measurement Unbiased Diode Reverse-Biased Diode Charge Collection and Measurement Surface Barrier Detectors p-n Junction Detectors Summary Detectors for Position and Energy Measurement Resistive Charge Division Diode Strip Detectors Readout Methods Charge Collection and Measurement Accuracy Choice of Geometrical Parameters Strip Detectors with Double-Sided Readout Strip Detectors with Integrated Capacitive Readout Coupling Drift Detectors 125

4 Contents IX Linear Drift Devices Matrix Drift Devices Radial Drift Devices Single-Sided Structured Devices Readout of Drift Devices and Measurement Precision Charge Coupled Devices as Detectors Three-Phase "Conventional" MOS CCDs Linear and Matrix CCDs Charge Collection and Charge Transport Signal Readout Other Types of MOS CCDs Fully Depleted p-n CCDs Summary The Electronics of the Readout Function Operating Principles of Transistors Bipolar Transistors Junction Field Effect Transistors Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors Threshold Behavior of Unipolar Transistors The Different Types of JFETs and MOSFETs Noise Sources Thermal Noise Low-Frequency Voltage Noise Shot Noise Noise in Transistors The Measurement of Charge The Charge-Sensitive Amplifier Noise in a Charge-Sensitive Amplifier Filtering and Shaping Basic Electronic Circuits Current Sources and Mirrors Inverters Source Followers Cascode Amplifiers Differential Amplifiers Integrated Circuit Technologies NMOS Technologies CMOS Technologies Bipolar Technologies SOI Technologies Mixed Technologies Integrated Circuits for Strip Detectors Integrated Circuits for Pixel Detectors Noise in Strip Detectors - Front-End Systems Biasing Circuits 212

5 X Contents Noise in Biasing Circuits Noise Correlations Summary The Integration of Detectors and Their Electronics Hybrid Systems of Detectors and Their Electronics Strip Detectors Pixel Detectors Detector-Technology-Compatible Electronics Detectors with Intrinsic Amplification Avalanche Diode Depleted Field Effect Transistor Structure Depleted p-channel MOS Field Effect Transistor (DEPMOSFET) Electrical Properties and Device Schematics Other Types of DEPFET Structures DEPFET Properties and Applications DEPFET Pixel Detectors DEPFET Pixel Detector with Random Access Readout DEPFET Pixel Detector for Continuous Operation Hybrid DEPFET Pixel Detector DEPFET Pixel Detector with Three-Dimensional Analog Memory Detector Technology Production of Detector Substrates Processing Sequence in Planar Technology Photolithographic Structuring Chemical Etching Doping Oxidation Deposition from the Gas Phase Metal Deposition Thermal Treatments Passivation Technology Simulation Device Stability and Radiation Hardness Electrical Breakdown and Protection Breakdown Protection in Diode Strip Detectors Breakdown Protection of the Detector Rim Radiation Damage in Semiconductors The Formation of Primary Lattice Defects 276

6 Contents XI Formation and Properties of Stable Defects Electrical Properties of Defect Complexes Effects of Defects on Detector Properties Annealing of Radiation Damage Reverse Annealing Parameterization of Radiation Damage for Low-Flux Irradiation Radiation Damage in the Surface Region Oxide Damage Nonuniformity in Bulk Damage Near the Surface Radiation Damage in Detectors Radiation Damage in Electronics Radiation Hardening Techniques Summary Device Simulation Mathematical Formulation Poisson and Continuity Equations Deep-Level Defects in Stationary Situations Quasi-Fermi Levels Numerical Solution of Stationary Situations Linearization of the Problem The Finite Difference Method Example of a Stationary Problem Simulation of Time-Dependent Situations 330 Part III: Reference Material 333 Appendix A: Frequently Used Symbols 335 Appendix B: Physical Constants 339 References 341 Books and Reviews 341 Articles 342 Index 349