Founded in 2013 by owners, Louise Labuschagne and Dr Henry Wainwright, Real IPM now employs 250 staff.

Transcription

1 for Capsicums

2 Real Solutions Real Farming Founded in 2013 by owners, Louise Labuschagne and Dr Henry Wainwright, Real IPM now employs 250 staff Our BASIS-qualified field consultants serve both large and small-scale farmers in crops ranging from cereals, field vegetables, fruit and nut plantations, to greenhouse vegetables and ornamental crops Nairobi has excellent airfreight logistics for exports and our products have Registrations in Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ghana, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, and Canada; and are under-going other pan-african Registrations Based in Thika, Kenya, Real IPM is a leading producer and toll manufacturer of predatory mites, which are exported globally for other bio-control company brands Our predatory mites are produced under license from Syngenta Bioline Biopesticides are produced by our laboratories in Kenya We have global rights to several isolates of Metarhizium under license from icipe international research institute Together with our own isolates, we have a comprehensive offer for crop protection solutions

3 Real IPM Capsicum Manual The Real IPM Capsicum Manual was developed by joint MD of Real IPM Kenya, Louise Labuschagne, by bringing together published information from many sources and pooling the extensive field experiences of the Real IPM technical field advisors working in Africa Louise has over 30 years experience in IPM crop protection and is BASIS-qualified and legally able to give advice on the use of chemical pesticides under UK law The contents of the Real IPM manual for Capsicum are offered as useful information for agronomists seeking to develop more robust IPM programmes in many parts of the world It is not advice Growers must satisfy themselves of the local registration issues for both chemicals and biological control agents and the efficacy of these control methods under their local conditions In order to capitalise on the information provided, growers are encouraged to contact Real IPM Kenya Ltd for both in-depth training and consultancy services to develop appropriate IPM programmes in the country where their crops are grown wwwrealipmcom If local Registrations are needed, Real IPM Kenya is willing to discuss potential markets and collaborations that will enable this to happen

4 Chillies and peppers (Capsicum spp) Capsicum is a member of the Solanacae family, related to tomatoes, eggplants and potatoes The pests and diseases of these crops and their IPM programmes tend to be similar and crop rotation plans need to account for this The five commercialized species of capsicums are: Capsicum annuum: (bell peppers, cayenne, jalapenos) Capsicum frutescens: (tabasco, Thai peppers, piri piri) Capsicum chinense: (habanero, Scotch bonnet) Capsicum pubescens: (rocoto peppers) Capsicum baccatum: (aji pepper) Common groupings of the above capsicum species describe them as bell peppers, sweet peppers and hot peppers depending on their shape and the amount of heat they contain Bell peppers change colour as they ripen Immature bell peppers are green and become red as they ripen Other varieties can be yellow, orange, purple of white

5 Scoville Heat Units Variation in the heat units of the various chillies and peppers is measured in Scoville Heat Units (SHU) This measures the point at which the heat becomes undetectable by a panel of tasters, after a measure of chilli extract with sugar syrup is taste tested The more heat detected the higher the SHU reading High performance liquid chromatography is now used to quantify this analysis by measuring the concentration of capsaicinoid in a chilli pepper variety Pure capsaicin measures 16,000,000 SHU Chillies with high SHI ratings are used in the production of products such as teargas 1

6 Sustainable ABE chili production ABE chillies can be a profitable crop if the farmer has reliable markets and understands how to optimize both the growing conditions and crop protection of the crop It will be in the ground for several years so it is important to invest time, money and effort in providing Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) as follows: Good start with a good quality seed and a healthy seedling made in seed trays, inoculated with biopesticides and bio-fertilisers Good soil preparation to optimize plant establishment and growth with good bio-enhanced organic matter pre-treated with bio-pesticides and bio-fertilisers Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) to reduce plant stress at planting and throughout growth of crop optimum irrigation and fertiliser programme Good crop protection with a preventative, bio-intensive IPM programme, to manage resistance to chemical pesticides, improve crop protection and reduce pesticide resi dues Good field hygiene to reduce risk of re-infection with pests and diseases from infected crop debris of fruits and leaves Get off to a good start Healthy seedlings are more likely to ensure healthy profits 2

7 If seedlings are already infected with pests and diseases before they are planted out in the field, this will limit the yields that each individual plant will be able to achieve The chilli plants will be in the ground for several years, so it is worth taking extra care to make the healthiest transplant possible Do not grow seedlings directly in the soil because: The soil can be contaminated with a range of fungal and bacterial pathogens that will quickly infect the roots Even if you cannot see any infection in the transplants before they are planted out in the field - they could still be infected The fungi and bacteria are microscopic and cannot be seen It is only when the plant comes under stress that it may exhibit the disease symptoms The plant may not actually die but it will not be as vigorous and productive as a non-infected plant Water used for irrigation can also contain bacteria, fungi and nematodes especially if the water has come from a river source Water from a bore hole or mains water, is less contaminated 3

8 Keep pests off young transplants Young seedlings are very attractive to pests such as thrips, whitefly and broad mite The nursery must have a good Real IPM crop protection programme to ensure that the transplants leave the nursery without small populations of pests that start the field pest populations when they are planted out in the field There are some easy Real IPM programmes for clean healthy transplant production: Sticky traps to attract and stick flying pests Yellow traps for whitefly and aphids Blue traps for thrips Real Trichoderma seed tray drenches to ensure healthy root growth and reduce diseases Real Metarhizium 69 foliar sprays on the seedling trays to kill whitefly and thrips Real Amblyseius a predatory mite that preys on whitefly, thrips and mites (spider mite and broad mites) The nursery should be insect proof and have a double entry door so that there is never a wide open door for pests to fly inside Check out the Real IPM Tool Box 4

9 Real IPM Tool Box Sticky traps Entrap is used for attracting and sticking pests (killing them) Hang one Entrap card for every ten meters square in the nursery, about one foot above the height of the crop Half of the cards should be blue (for thrips) and half yellow (for whitefly) because both thrips and whitefly are potential pests Monitrap is used for monitoring pest levels It has sections on the trap that can be pulled off individually over a period of time to expose smaller areas of the sticky surface each week This enables the grower to monitor whether the flying pests are going up or down over a period by comparing the catches in the sections between the weeks Rollertrap is used for mass trapping flying pests It works like Entrap but is more useful in large greenhouses 5

10 Real Trichoderma Trichoderma is a naturally occurring fungus that comes originally from the soil It has been mass-produced by Real IPM as a commercial bio-pesticide and is also used as a bio-fertiliser because it can make phosphate from the soil more available to the plant Application methods Real Trichoderma can be used in several ways, depending on the reason for applying it Bio-priming seeds before planting using a clean container with water and Real Trichoderma Drench into seedling trays in the nursery using a knapsack sprayer or watering can Apply to compost before it is put in the planting hole using a knapsack sprayer or watering can to wet the pile evenly and thoroughly Applying to the roots of plants as they grow in the field using drip irrigation linked to an injector system (as used for liquid fertiliser applications) Foliar applications with conventional spray equipment of any type, including fogging systems This is for crops that suffer from downy mildew Real Trichoderma OD This formulation is pure spores in vegetable oil Real Trichoderma is available in sachets (20 ml) for knapsack use One sachet per knapsack It is also available in a one-litre bottle for larger areas The rate is 200 ml per hectare (25 acres) Always use immediately once the bottle is opened, as quality will deteriorate Do not store open bottles for alter use Buy the most suitable product for the intended use Store all products in a cool dry place, out of direct sunlight Ideal storage temperature no more than 20 deg C (for three months) 6

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12 Advantages of Metarhizium It is compatible with predatory mites and parasitoids There are no pesticide residue issues, or re-entry intervals with this product It is safe to humans and the environment There is no recorded resistance of pests to Metarhizium, due to its many modes of action Metarhizium spores are sprayed onto the soil and in the canopy The fungus can grow saprophytically on organic matter in the soil, where it can reduce the number of fruit fly, thrips and weevils emerging as adults from the pupae in the soil The addition of a layer of organic matter (sawdust, rice husks, coffee husks etc) on the soil surface will promote this effect Metarhizium life cycle Metarhizium spore germinates on contact with insect s body then forms an apressorium that helps it penetrate the cuticle The fungus grows through the insect s cuticle, into the haemolymph, where it proliferates and kills the target pest 8

13 ACHIEVE Real Metarhizium 78 OD Is used for the control of: Spider mites Tarsonemid mites Broad mites Use with predatory mites (Phytoseiulus or Amblyseius) Met 78 is sprayed in the canopy only because this is where the pest mites spends all of its life cycle Spider mite Broad mites Phytoseiulus Amblyseius 9

14 Aphids Real Metarhizium 62 OD Is used for the control of: aphids Met 62 is sprayed in the canopy only because this is where the aphid spends all of its life cycle REAL Metarhizium 62 OD Real Solutions Real Farming Aphids Produced and Distributed by: (Imetengenezwa na kusambazwa na): The Real IPM Company (K) Ltd Office: (+254) PO Box , Madaraka, Thika, Kenya 10

15 Real Metarhizium products can be used in several ways, depending on the reason for applying it Drench into seedling trays in the nursery using a knapsack sprayer or watering to establish Metarhizium near the roots when the seedlings are planted out in the field with the bio-enhanced compost plug Apply to compost before it is put in the planting hole using a knapsack sprayer or watering can to wet the pile evenly and thoroughly Again this will top up Metarhizium under the canopy of the plants, so it is locally present when the thrips and fruit fly pupate in the soil beneath the plant Applying to the roots of plants as they grow in the field using drip irrigation linked to an injector system (as used for liquid fertiliser applications) Foliar applications with conventional spray equipment of any type, including fogging systems Foliar applications need to be made at the optimum time of day when the pest is sitting on the upper surface of the leaves (eg 2 hrs after sunrise or 2 hrs before sunset) Metarhizium is compatible with Trichoderma and can be applied together in the same tank Real Metarhizium OD (69, 7862) This formulation is pure spores in vegetable oil Real Metarhizium is available in sachets (20 ml) for knapsack use One sachet per knapsack It is also available in a one-litre bottle for larger areas The rate is 200 ml per hectare (25 acres) Always use immediately once the bottle is opened, as quality will deteriorate Do not store open bottles for alter use Buy the most suitable product for the intended use Store all products in a cool dry place, out of direct sunlight Ideal storage temperature no more than 20 deg C (for three months) 11

16 Real Bacillus subtilis Bacillus subtilis is a naturally occurring beneficial bacterium It has been mass-produced by Real IPM as a commercial bio-pesticide It is not harmful to the environment, spray operators or consumers The Pre Harvest Interval is zero days There are no residues Real Bacillus subtilis TFP This formulation is a Total Fermented Product containing the bacterium and the natural substances it produced during he production process Real Bacillus subtilis is available in sachets (120 ml) for knapsack use One sachet per knapsack It is also available in a one-litre bottle for larger areas The rate is one litre per hectare (25 acres) Always use immediately once the bottle is opened, as quality will deteriorate Do not store open bottles for alter use Buy the most suitable product for the intended use Store all products in a cool dry place, out of direct sunlight Ideal storage temperature no more than 5 deg C (for three months) Bacillus subtilis is used to control powdery mildew in chillies It should not be applied to run-off, because it is a contact bio-fungicide and should not drip off the plant when it is applied It must stay on the plants leaves 12

17 Good nursery planning The ingredients for success are simple If you understand that seeds can be infected with diseases and need to be of good quality you will ensure that you start with seed from a reliable, certified supplier If you understand that microbes can infect your plants from either infested soil or water you will ensure that good hygiene is practiced in the propagation nursery even before planting the seed If you remember that whitefly and thrips can carry viruses, you will make very sure that you try to keep them off your young plants, until they are large enough to with stand some attack If you remember that broad mite are difficult to detect I the field because they are so small, you will try to prevent establishment by applying predatory mites in the nursery so that predators go out with the plants when the seedlings are transplanted 13

18 Get the beginning right Good start with a good quality seed and a healthy seedling made in seed trays, inoculated with biopesticides and bio-fertilisers Many chilli diseases and viruses are seed borne (see section on viruses) Ensure that the seed used is either: Bought-in certified seed guaranteed to be free of seed borne diseases and viruses OR Farm-saved seed from VERY healthy plants ONLY (know WHERE seed came from) Twenty grams of seeds should give at least 500 good plants Planting density is about 10,000 plants per hectare (= 4,000 per acre or 100 plants per 100 msq) A small-scale farmer producing their own plants for 100 m sq production unit would therefore only need about 10 grams of seeds This would allow them twice as many plants and permit them to choose only the best quality seedlings for transplanting Seed sterilisation ONLY If seed borne diseases are suspected - it is possible to sterilise seeds before planting, providing appropriate precautions (PPE) are used gloves, apron and face shield If seed borne viruses are not suspected do not sterilise the seed Before planting, seeds could be soaked in a 131% solution of sodium hypochlorite (eg one part household bleach (525%) to four parts water) for 40 minutes with agitation One litre of solution treats 05 kg of seed Rinse for 5-10 minutes under cold running water To soak the seeds, place them in a small hole gauge sieve and dip into a bowl of the mixed solution Some seeds will float and can be pushed below the surface by breaking the surface tension with a stick Remove any seeds that will not sink, as they are probably not viable After rinsing place seeds on several layers of paper towels to absorb the extra moisture (seeds will not clump together and are easier to handle) Do not store sterilised seed as its viability will decline 14

19 Bio-priming seeds Bio-priming of seeds is a technique for soaking seeds in water (to get them ready to germinate quickly) and including a bio-pesticide in the soaking water (to establish the beneficial microbe on the seed Bio priming of chilli seeds provides 1 the following advantages: Increased germination percentage Longer mean root and shoot length Greater biomass production Improved plant vigour Do not soak the seeds for longer than recommended and always test a small batch of seeds first to check germination and ensure you have the protocol right Bio-priming guidelines Step one : Put the seeds in a clean container and cover the seeds with clean drinking quality water to one inch of water above the level of the seeds A glass jar with a lid is ideal Step 2: Add one sachet of Real Trichoderma (20 ml) to the water and agitate well Step 3: Soak the seeds in the bio-solution for 3 hours only and then drain the seeds Retain the drainage water as this still contains beneficial microbes, which can be drenched onto the seedling trays when the seeds are planted Step 4: Spread the wet seeds out on a new clean plastic sheet in the shade (out of direct sunlight) and allow the seeds to air dry for about half an hour before planting immediately Do not dry on newspaper or other absorbent material because this will pull the biopesticide off the seed Do not dry in direct sunlight as the microbe is killed by UV light Step 5: plant the bio-primed seeds immediately into seed trays containing good quality sieved compost or washed coir fiber Ensure coir fiber is washed three times before use in case it has too much salt in it Testing the EC of the drainage water can assess the amount of salt in the coir fiber The Ec should not be greater than EC 1 1 The Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology Vol 89 No: 5 itle: Effect of bio-priming using bio-control agents on seed germination and seedling vigour in chilli (Capsicum annuum L) 'PKM 1' Authors:M ANANTHI, P SELVARAJU and K SUNDARALINGAM 15

20 Grow healthy seedlings Attributes of a good quality transplant 10 to 15 cm height Uniform, dark green leaf colour without blemishes Vigorous root system Free from pests and disease Chilli transplants can be sown in a seed tray or in a prepared seed bed Seed trays are preferred because they produce healthier transplants As small-scale farmers do not need large numbers of transplants, the production of plants in seed trays can be cost-effective and reduces many of the pest and disease risks associated with the seed-bed system Why seed trays? Advantages of transplants from seed trays 1 Transplants from seeds trays do not suffer transplant shock caused by plant stress due to insufficient water at establishment or root damage This gives a higher percentage establishment and requires less hand labour needed to irrigated the young seedlings during this period 2 Transplants raised in a seed tray tend to be more uniform in size than transplants grown in a seed bed, which has a greater variation in soil type than compost in a seed tray 3 The seed tray method has less risk of infection with soil borne pests and diseases and needs only small amounts of good quality compost in the cells 4 They need not be more expensive than transplants grown in a seed-bed, if farmers can make seed-tray plants themselves, rather than buy them from a propagator One seed tray produces 250 transplants 16

21 5 The seed trays can be re-used many times but must be thoroughly cleaned between batches of plants as they can be contaminated with diseases that will infect the young plants Soak them in 2% bleach (JIK) solution (eg 20 ml of in 2 litres of water) for one hour Scrub all soil out of the cells and allow to air dry away from the soil before use 6 The seeds and compost are cheap if produced on farm always sow 100% more seeds than needed This will allow seedlings to be removed if infected with pests or diseases The grower can then CHOOSE the BEST uniform plants to transplant and THROW AWAY the rest! 17

22 Guidelines for seed tray propagation Choose a seed tray about 13 cm depth about 250 cells per tray Fill the seed tray with good quality, farm-produced sieved compost or washed coco fibers (wash 3 times) Sieve the com post first and make sure the cells are over full with compost Then give the tray a hard tap against the bench to condense the compost a little before scraping off any excess compost with a level ruler Thoroughly wet the compost by submerging the tray in clean water for a few minutes to allow the compost to absorb water Ten take it out of the water and allow it to drain freely for half an hour Bio-prime the seeds as described above and plant immediately (3 hours) Sow two seeds per cell very shallow (2 to 5 mm in depth) and cover lightly with vermiculite or sieved soil This allows you to have some losses and to remove one seedling from each cell to keep only the strongest seedling Do not plant too deep, as this may encourage damping-off disease Expect to water the seed trays twice per day The ideal way to water seed trays is to have an overhead fine irrigation system In this absence of this type of irrigation system and if only small numbers of trays need to be watered - stand the seed trays in a tray of water and allow them to absorb the water through the bottom of the seed tray In this way heavy downpours of water do not disturb the seeds Alternatively use a watering can with a fine rose head or a hose pipe with your thumb partially over the end of the hose to create a fine mist Hold either the watering can or the hose some distance from the seed tray so the water is gently applied to the seed trays Check the compost twice per day to see if more water us needed Do not let the com post dry out completely but do not let it get soaking wet! As a guide, expect to use about 2 litres of water per day to irrigate one seed tray (50 cm x 30 cm) The seed trays should not be placed ON the ground or they will be in contact with the soil where disease spores and nematodes could infect the roots Place seed trays on a shelf made with wire mesh or chicken wire to allow the seed tray to drain freely after irrigation This will reduce the risk of damping off disease in seedlings It will also improve air flow around the plants and reduce leaf diseases Make a small wooden frame, covered with insect-proof mesh (very small holes thrips-proof netting from ShadeNet ltd in Thika) to house the seed tray to keep away thrips and other pests from infecting the new seedlings This is inexpensive and if managed properly may avoid the need for expensive insecticides during propagation 18

23 Seedlings should begin to emerge after days, depending on the temperature When there is 75% emergence add Tricho derma to the irrigation water once per week Use one sachet per knapsack and water and use the knapsack to apply the bio-irrigation water Thin to one seedling per cell when the seedlings are 5 cm tall Do not keep more than one seedling per cell after the 5 cm tall stage as this will lead to overcrowding and disease Check for pests or diseases daily, when irrigating and physically remove them by wiping the pests off the leaves or squashing them and then REMOVE the seedling which had the pest do not leave the seedling behind as the insect could have transmitted a virus which could spread and kill all plants Techniques for large-scale seed-tray production can be adapted to small-scale farmers 19

24 Guidelines for seed-bed transplant propagation The risks of pest and disease losses in propagation are greater in seedbed propagation systems Greater care is needed in managing the environment to reduce potential losses On-farm seed bed with damping off no raised bed or drainage used Calculate the area of seedbed needed to produce enough plants for the commercial crop area to be planted Ensure the soil is free of root knot nematode or other soil diseases, either by soil sterilisation (solar or steaming) Burn plant trash on seedbed surface for 30 minutes and after cooling mix soil with equal amount of compost or with decom posed manure at a rate of 2 to 3 kg/sq m In semi-arid areas soil solarisation of seed bed could be done Otherwise use an area which is risk-free due to known history, or the seedbed medium is fully composted material Dress the seed bed with Trichoderma by preparing a solution in a watering can (follow instructions as for seed trays) Prepare the seed bed with a fine tilth in the form of a raised beds (at least 25 cm high) of 1 meter width, surrounded by drainage channels of 30 cm width Sow seeds uniformly in rows - spacing cm between rows at the depth of 5 mm, using 16 g seed per m sq One hect are of commercial chilli will require 120 sq m of seedbed I sqm of seedbed should produce transplants for 80 meters of commercial chilli beds (if 2 rows of plants per 1 meter wide bed) Consolidate the beds after sowing with a roller, or press down firmly with a wooden board Protect seedlings from wind damage with a windbreak and provide sufficient shading just to maintain soil moisture and reduce water stress Allow some airflow between the windbreak and the shade net, so that leaves do not remain wet for long periods after irrigation (to reduce disease development) Reduce shading later to avoid elongated plants once the seedlings have emerged Put organic mulch (insect-free dry leaves or grass etc) over the entire seedbed as the seeds germinate (should take 7 10 days) Once seeds have germinated, remove the mulch and place it between rows after seedlings appeared, to conserve water and stop evapo-transpiration from exposed soil surface 20

25 Irrigation should be limited 7 10 days before transplanting to harden off the plants and prevent them from suffering transplant shock Ideally, irrigate the crop so that the leaves do not remain wet for longer than necessary If necessary, remove shading or windbreak for a short period to allow leaves to dry once the soil is thoroughly wet beneath the plants Wet leaves are liable to disease If seedlings are affected by damping-off, this could be due to overcrowding or over watering Possible solutions include: 1) Cutting back the water or thinning out some of the seedlings to allow leaves to dry off 2) Remove all infected plants, as they appear to prevent the diseases from spreading 3) Reduce shading or wind break to allow soil or leaves to dry off to improved levels Prompt action saves plants Fungicides can be applied if the situation demands it Do not apply in the heat of the day as this could cause leaf scorch Seedbeds must be kept weed-free by hand weeding regularly Weed will encourage pests and diseases by reducing airflow Yields of seedlings will suffer if weeds are not checked Seedling should be ready for transplanting after six weeks, if they have to remain in the seed bed for longer, they may require to be thinned out to prevent overcrowding and they may also need to have the tops pinched out When transplanting with plants from a seed bed make sure the roots are not damaged when lifting from the seed bed this will allow diseases to enter the plant and will slow down establishment of the transplant in the field It will reduce yields! Transplants are normally 6-8 weeks old when ready for planting Harden them off for 7 10 days before transplanting by reducing watering a little and standing them out in the shade outside the propagation unit or remove shading for most of the day in seed-beds (cover plants in the middle of the day with shade) 21

26 Damping off Damping off is a common problem in the production of young plants It is caused by two soil borne fungi (Phytophthora and Pythium), which can both move in water because they have motile zoospores This disease is a higher risk if contaminated soil is used during propagation especially if the seedlings are prepared in the field in seedbeds This is why clean seed trays without contaminated soil is preferred Seedlings infected with damping off will either not emerge or will collapse and die soon after emergence The condition is characterized by rapid wilting and death Once transplants get to the 2 or 3-leaf stage they are generally no longer susceptible to damping off The stems of infected plants may have a dark shriveled section at the soil line 22

27 GAP for COMMERCIAL FIELD The soil is the most important component of the crop management system If the soil is looked after well this will ensure good yield Soil Analysis The fertiliser programme should be based on soil analysis for optimum yields If small-scale farmers cannot afford these tests, at least an annual soil test should be taken from representative soils and the information used to make general recommendations for farms with the same soil type Take the soil sample six to eight weeks before planning to transplant, so that the appropriate fertiliser programme can be determined and the required fertilisers purchased This will also indicate if lime or dolomite is required to raise the ph to the optimum of between 6 and 65 These products should be applied at least four weeks before the crop is planted Check list for choice of site for growing chillies Solanacae crops (chillies, peppers, tomatoes, potatoes etc) should not have been grown in the same land for at least three years and maize or brassicas (cabbages) should have been grown on the land in between the last crop of chillies Chillies thrive in well drained, aerated, light to medium soils Soils with high humus content will greatly increase yield and lengthen the cropping period Slightly acidic soils can be tolerated but a ph of is preferable Good sunlight no overhanging trees which shade the crop 23

28 Agronomy Maize barrier crops Maize is an excellent barrier crop for chillies because: it acts as a lure for fruit flies during the heat of the day and allows the grower to concentrate biological or chemical controls for fruit flies in the maize crop (see section on fruit flies) Maize is a non-host plant for aphid borne chilli viruses If viruses are a local problem, it is very important to interplant a row of maize or baby-corn in between every bed of chillies This will slow down the spread of aphid-borne viruses, by providing the opportunity for aphids to feed on the maize plant (a non-host for chilli viruses) and clean their mouth-parts from the virus before feeding on the chilli A barrier of maize plants should also be planted around the edges of the whole block of chillies 24

29 Marigold Marigold can be a useful trap plant for thrips and caterpillar pests Dwarf Mexican Marigold is preferred to tall African marigold The bright orange or yellow colour of the flower and the strong scent of the leaves and flower attract thrips and moth pests If trap crops are planted on the borders of fields or between blocks they can help to concentrate the pest in areas where they are easier to treat However they must be treated and killed (preferably biological control) so that they do not build up pests in or near the crop White speckling on marigold leaves is from thrips feeding damage Amblyseius predatory mites should be applied to marigold plants so that they can build up on the thrips in the marigold trap plants 25

30 Calendula Calendula is very attractive to whiteflies and can make a useful trap crop as part of an IPM programme for whiteflies Calendula can also be planted n the same area as the marigold Whitefly eggs Trialeuroides Whiteflies prefer to lay eggs on Calendula but the eggs do not hatch into whitefly larvae If needed, a yellow sticky trap can be put up near the trap plants to enhance the lure effect and stick the whitefly 26

31 Bed Preparation A good root system will provide higher yields, so ensure there is no soil pan (hard layer in the soil) to prevent root growth downwards A raised bed at least 20 cm high should be prepared to ensure very good drainage and reduce losses due to soil diseases Moisture retention in the soil is very important to provide continued growth and even survival during dry periods (in rain fed crops) The addition of organic compost will improve soil moisture retention Add compost into the bed when making the 20 cm high bed During bed making - apply base (phosphate rich) fertiliser dressing as advised depending on soil analysis Use a string with a peg at each end to mark out and make the beds straight and to mark out the planting rows on the bed When making the bed, move soil and compost about to achieve a level surface on the bed This will help promote even growth and avoid dips in the beds where water accumulates (and leads to root diseases) Mark out the two rows for planting with the strings, as described above The rows should be 60 cm apart and the plants within the row should be 60 cm apart Use a zig-zag pattern of planting to maximize the space for each plant Prepare the planting holes about 20 cm deep and 20 cm wide fill with good quality compost Make sure there is enough compost to over fill the holes, then press the surface lightly before transplanting When transplanting with plants from a seed tray, make sure the compost surface of the transplant plug is at the same level as the final soil surface in the bed Do not plant too deep, or the stems will rot Do not plant too shallow, or the new roots will dry out When transplanting with plants from a seed bed make sure the roots are not damaged when lifting from the seed bed this will allow diseases to enter Make sure the part of the stem which was level with the soil surface in the seed bed is STILL at the soil surface in the commercial bed, when transplanted Do not plant too deep, or the stems will rot Do not plant too shallow, or the new roots will dry out 27

32 Mulching the soil If plastic is available (clean, second hand plastic is adequate even old fertiliser bags) this can be used to cover the one-meter wide beds Holes can be made in the plastic in the position where the transplants are to be planted Plastic can help to slow down the life cycle of thrips and leafminer in the soil The plants can be irrigated by hand with a watering can and a long spout by applying water to the hole where the transplant is planted If plastic is not used, the soil should be covered with an organic mulch, such as straw, after the seeds are planted This will conserve soil moisture and reduce weeds There should be no seeds in the organic mulch material which could become a weed! Irrigation Flower and bud abortion can result from insufficient water applications during flower development and fruit set Feel the soil moisture by hand during these critical periods and apply more water during this time if necessary Take a handful of soil from the bottom of a 15-cm deep hole and squeeze it If it holds together when you release your grip, then there is sufficient soil moisture If the soil crumbles, then is time to irrigate If water is in short supply, make sure the soil mulch is deep and even enough to prevent water loss from exposed soil surfaces Advantages and disadvantages of different irrigation systems Overhead irrigation will increase leaf wetness and encourage the spread of bacterial wilt However, overhead irrigation can discourages pests such as aphids, mites, thrips and whiteflies Do not apply overhead irrigation after 400 pm as wet leaves and fruits over night will promote disease development Furrow irrigation can spread soil borne diseases such as bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt or Verticillium wilt Ideally, the crops should be irrigated with drip irrigation lines with the correct spacing 28

33 Inter-row cultivation Chillies benefit from inter-row cultivation at 10-day intervals from 30 days after sowing, if direct seeded Hand weeding follows inter-row cultivation to check competition from weeds Fertiliser Programme Soil Analysis The fertiliser programme should be based on soil analysis for optimum yields If small-scale farmers cannot afford these tests, at least an annual soil test should be taken from representative soils and the information used to make general recommendations for farms with the same soil type Take the soil sample six to eight weeks before planning to transplant, so that the appropriate fertiliser programme can be determined and the required fertilisers purchased This will also indicate if lime or dolomite is required to raise the ph to the optimum of between 6 and 65 These products should be applied at least four weeks before the crop is planted The laboratory that undertakes the analysis will advise on the rates of lime to be used to correct the soil ph Fertiliser Programme The recommended blanket rates for mineral fertilisers, subjected to adjustment based on the results of soil analysis, for hot pepper are kg NPK/ha in a N:P:K proportion This is gm per square metre applied over the whole growing season (not in one application!) This is divided in a base dressing, top dressing and in foliar feeds Apply as base dressing at transplanting use a phosphate fertiliser depending on soil fertility For example DAP at 10 gm per square metre or 2 gm in each planting hole Top dressing should be applied 1 and 2 months after transplanting Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) (100kg/ha) for acidic soils or ammonium sulphate nitrate (100kg/ha) for alkaline soils This translates into 10 gm per square metre Foliar feeds with magnesium are desirable on alkaline soils - read the label fro application rates Alternatively use a dilute vermi-liquid at a rate of 1 to 10 and spray until the foliage is wet If no soil analysis is available and the soil is of average fertility, a basal fertiliser that contains 20 gm of DAP per square metre, 10 gm of CAN per square metre and regularly apply foliar feed of liquid vermicompost liquid Top dressing can be applied as 10 gm per square metre of urea and or CAN at 10 gm per square metre 29

34 If the crop leaves look yellow it may need more nitrogen fertiliser which can be applied by foliar feeds or vermi-liquid sprays to the canopy (as above) Pollination Most chillies are self-pollinated and should grow true to form unlike hybrids Chillies planted close to each other can and do cross-pollinate This will not have any effect on the current fruit crop but can alter the seedsif you are buying new seed each year it does not matter if you plant different types or varieties of chillies or peppers Commercial seed growers keep different varieties planted at least 2 miles from each other to prevent crops pollination by bees Chillies benefit from pollination from managed beehives, increasing flower set and pod size Remove all virus-infected plants IMMEDIATELY Do not leave the virus-infected plant in the open, as insect vectors may still be on it and can move from the old plant to new plants Cover, bury or burn the plant immediately Reduction of Branch Budding Once the plant has grown to about 30 cm of height, it is recommended to remove the weakest stems to leave a plant with 5 to 8 stems If a knife is used to remove the stems this could spread virus infections BEFORE beginning to remove the stems REMOVE completely all plants with virus symptoms by pulling out the plants and placing in a bag for later destruction The knife should be dipped in a 50:50 milk and water solution in between every cut this will help to reduce spread of virus between plants which are not yet showing virus symptoms At all stages of growth, from propagation to fruiting it is very important to remove all plants with virus symptoms as soon as they appear -to prevent the spread of the virus The virus is spread by flying vectors such as thrips, whitefly and aphids It is therefore important to only remove the plants when the temperature is low (early morning or late afternoon) when these insects cannot fly Otherwise they will move off to new plants when disturbed and spread the virus! Take a large bag to the plant, which is being removed, and place it inside the bag to take it off the field 30

35 Remove first flowers Remove the first flowers, if the plant has not yet reached 30 cm at the time the first flowers are showing If the first few flowers remain on the plant, when it is still small they will take up all the nutrients in competition with the continued vegetative growth of the plant A small plant will produce small yields Better to remove those early flowers and build a larger plant with a larger total yield potential Remove lower leaves Improve air-circulation at the base of plants by removing all leaves and branches that are touching the ground ensure that all leaves on the lower cm of each stem are removed Harvest First harvest of chilli commences within 8-10 weeks from transplanting and continues for several weeks A harvest period from Sept to December is insured by a planting every 4 weeks from April to June, when rains aid establishment in areas without irrigation Pests of Chillies The most serious pests of chillies are those that carry viruses (aphids, thrips and whitefly) If viruses are a serious risk, it is not wise to rely only on biological control for these pests as this may be too slow to prevent spread of the virus Bear this in mind in relation to information below on potential biological control agents (natural enemies) of these pests See Real IPM ID Chart for Pests of Chillies 31

36 Aphids (Aphis gossypi and Myzus persicae) Aphids transmit chilli leaf curl and other viruses (see section below on viruses) Damage Aphids appear on the tender shoots, leaves and on the lower surface of the old leaves They suck the sap and reduce the vigour of the plant More importantly, they are vectors for several viruses (see section below on viruses) As aphids feed, the excess sugar solution, which they suck from the plant, will drop from their bodies onto the upper surfaces of the leaves below Sooty moulds quickly develop on this substance and it can also cause down grading of chilli pods Choice of chemicals The approved pesticides for control of aphids are detailed in the Appendix Follow Label recommendations and guidelines on Safe Use of Pesticides If viruses are present, pesticides are preferred to biological controls, which may be too slow to stop the spread of virus diseases Caution: Neonicotinoid pesticides such as thiamethoxam, imidacloprid etc are likely to harm bees This could affect pollinations and yield of the crop Physical control Physical controls may also be used to reduce aphid number A spray solution made from locally available starch (cassava, maize or potato) may be made by: Dissolving 15 gm of starch per litre of hot water Stir solution until starch dissolved and use immediately Then direct the spray to the underside of the leaf to contact the aphids The water is drawn out of the aphids and into the starch spray This kills the aphid by dehydration 32

37 Metarhizium 62 for aphid control Real IPM has a strain of Metarhizium, which is specific to aphids Metarhizium 62 Met 62 has a zero PHI and leaves no residues There are no resistance issues This works in the same was as the other Metarhizium isolates and it has the following guidelines: Ensure optimum coverage of the plants because Met 62 is a contact action biopesticides Do not spray to run-off Spray late afternoon, to reduce exposure of Met 62 to UV light When aphids present, spray twice per week until under control If aphid borne viruses are suspected, tank mix the Met 62 with a suitable insecticide (correct PHI) for resistance management and a synergistic effect Aphidius parasitic wasp Providing compatible pesticides are used, it is possible to rapidly establish the common parasitic wasp, Aphidius on farms in Kenya, even in dry growing areas Metarhizium is compatible with Aphidius Natural pyrethrum sprays within the first 2-3 weeks should prevent rapid build up of aphids but because it is broken down by UV light, it is also compatible with Aphidius Advice should be sought on measures which can be taken to enhance levels of Aphidius on farms Natural enemies of aphids can be built up in the maize interplant crop between the chillies This may help to slow down the spread of aphids (whilst Met 62 are used in the chilli crop) 33

38 Aphidius Aphidius is a highly efficient parasitoid as a single female can lay up to 300 eggs (each killing and aphid) and most of these eggs are laid within 3 days after hatching and mating The female Aphidius lays an egg in the body of an aphid Aphidius adult laying egg in aphid This Aphidius egg hatches inside the aphid s body, into an Aphidius larva which feeds on the body fluids of the aphid The aphid does not die immediately and could even continue to give birth to one or two more aphids However, after a few days, the aphid will feed less and eventually the Aphidius larvae will pupate inside the aphid, spinning a silken cocoon The body of the parasitized aphid takes on a papery appearance and is described as being mummified It still looks like an aphid but it is a golden papery looking aphid Inside the mummified aphid, the Aphidius turns into an adult Aphidius wasp The wasp breaks out of the mummified aphid body by eating a circular door The wasp pushes this open and flies out Other natural enemies of aphids include ladybirds parasitized aphid (mummified) 34

39 Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) Thrips are vectors of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) Damage Both nymphs and adult thrips damage the crop from their rasping feeding on the leaf and pod surfaces Air spaces in the leaf caused by the feeding, sometimes gives the feeding patches a silvery look for a while Eventually these patches dry out and turn brown and will have small black dots (frass from thrips) Thrips infested leaves will curl upwards If the plants are affected at early stage they remain stunted in growth and flower production and pod set are arrested causing severe Thrips frass - small back dots are always associated with thrips damage 35

40 Life Cycle of thrips Part of the life cycle of thrips is in the soil This is why drenches of Met 69 OD in the soil should be made immediately underneath the plant canopy (total area shaded by bush) should be drenched This is why plastic soil mulch may reduce the build up of this pest Biological controls, such as the biopesticidethese should be applied to the soil to slow down the build up of thrips in the canopy 36

41 Control The approved pesticides for control of thrips are detailed in the Appendix Follow Label recommendations and guidelines on Safe Use of Pesticides If viruses are present, pesticides are preferred to biological controls, which may be too slow to stop the spread of virus diseases Physical controls may also be used to reduce thrips numbers as for aphids (see above) Thrips can be very specific in the time of day when they emerge from the flower or from under the leaf, when they are more exposed to insecticide sprays This is normally from 730 am to 830 am and in the afternoon from about 530 pm to 630 pm Scouting will confirm if this is the pattern of thrips activitythrips are attracted to both yellow and certain types of blue sticky traps They prefer the blue traps Several thrips stuck on yellow sticky trap One larger fungus gnat far left Coin for scale information 37

42 Biological controls for thrips There are several species of predatory mites (Amblyseius spp), which will attack the younger thrips They cannot prey on adult thrips, pupae or pre-pupae or thrips eggs Therefore they are only useful for control of juvenile thrips and should be used in conjunction with regular sprays of Met 69 OD in the canopy and on the soil surface Amblyseius will need to be present in very high numbers to exert any control of thrips and be applied weekly to the crop They should not be the main means of control if TSWV is present, because the control will be too slow to stop the spread of the virus A ratio of less than 1 Amblyseius to 20 thrips would be a satisfactory balance if no virus was present Amblyseius can survive on flower pollen in the absence of thrips It is advisable to apply the Amblyseius to the nursery plants during propagation to encourage even distribution of Amblyseius in the crop when planted out in the field 38

43 Orius Various species of the predatory bug, Orius, are common in Kenya and will kill many adult thrips They are very useful when thrips numbers are high, killing more thrips than they actually consume (by piercing their bodies and sucking out the contents) Sunflower if planted on the farm will increase Orius numbers locally and may contribute to increased numbers of relevant natural enemies IPM Scouting will assist in measuring the benefit of these Field Insectaries Orius adult feeding on thrips Physical controls for thrips Providing the topsoil depth is adequate, deep ploughing of heavily infested thrips blocks will bury the thrips, which pupate in the soil Do not deep plough, if sub-soil is brought to the surface, as this will reduce subsequent yields 39

44 Whitefly Whitefly are vectors for Chilli Leaf Curl Virus (CLCV) and Chilli Leaf Mosaic Virus (CLMV) Tomato Leaf Curl Virus in chilli Chilli Leaf Curl Virus Damage Plants infested with whiteflies will lack vigour, wilt, turn yellow, and may die In addition, heavily infested plants will be coated with a sticky material called honeydew, which reduces the attractiveness and saleability of the fruit Heavy concentrations of honeydew will promote the growth of a black sooty mould, which interferes with photosynthesis Sooty mould may also interfere with production or harvest operations ID and Life Cycle of whitefly There are two main types of whitefly in Kenya Trialeurodes vaporaiorum (glasshouse whitefly) Bemisia tabaci (sweet potato whitefly) Bemisia is a notifiable pest in the EU as it is resistant to most pesticides and a virus vector, whilst Trialeurodes is not notifiable Other species may be present at the Coast 40

45 Whiteflies have piercing-sucking mouthparts with the adults very active and easily disturbed The immature stages are less mobile and usually found on the undersides of the foliage Adult whiteflies feed on the lower leaf surfaces where they lay their eggs, but may rest on other areas of the host plant Adult females lays eggs on the leaves of host plants Eggs hatch into a crawler stage which will move short distances to find a suitable place to plug into the leaf and start sucking the sap There are three development instars which feed on the leaf called scales (instar 1-3 above) The fourth instar is the pupa which does not feed The adult whitefly hatches out of the pupae by bursting out (look for split open pupae) 41

46 Time line Egg laying commences 1-3 days after emergence and during the day Eggs are attached to the lower leaf surface with egg hatch occurring 7-10 days later This stage known as the "crawler" is the only mobile immature stage It moves only a short distance, inserts its needle-like mouthparts, and begins to feed on plant sap For approximately 7 days, the insect remains sessile, but goes through 3 moults The second and third instars also feed on plant sap with each stage being 3-4 days depending on temperature The insect then moults into a fourth stage nymph or resting stage called the pupa No feeding takes place during the pupa stage Distinguishing between Trialeuroides (top) and Bemisia (below) 42

47 Trialeuroides pupae (left) are more hairy than Bemisia pupae (right) Trialeuroides lay eggs in a semi circle and Bemisia lay all over the leaf 43

48 Control If whitefly transmitted viruses are present a fast acting pesticide is needed If the whiteflies are resistant to available chemicals or there are issue with pesticide residues, there is no option other than to use a prophylactic preventative bio-intensive programme Metarhizium 69 Metarhizium 69 can infect whiteflies It must be applied frequently to keep pests such as thrips and whiteflies from establishing If high levels of whitefly are already present, it is advisable to tank mix Met 69 with a suitable chemical insecticide for faster knockdown, whilst providing resistance management and a synergistic action Whitefly on rose leaves infected with Met 69 44

49 Parasitic wasp for whitefly Encarsia formosa Encarsia is a common tiny parasitic wasp, which lays eggs in the scales of whitefly Parasitised scales are black and easy to distinguish from un-parasitised whitefly scales, which are white Instead of a whitefly adult emerging from a whitefly scale an Encarsia adult wasp will emerge Encarsia are very common, naturally occurring parasitoids in many parts of the world Encarsia wasp laying and egg in a whitefly scale When the whitefly scale is parasitised it turns from white to black This makes it very easy to estimate the percentage parasitism Life Cycle of Whitefly and Encarsia 45

50 Physical controls for whiteflies The physical controls described for aphids and thrips will have some impact on whitefly Whitefly adults cannot move in cold temperatures even if the plant canopy is shaken! Therefore crops infested with whitefly should be removed at the end of the crop, only when it is cold (early in the morning) In this way there will not be clouds of whitefly in the air (moving to new plants) when the crop is taken out Preferably crops should be sprayed at night as the whitefly will not move off during the spray application (possibly to other blocks) and are more easily contacted by sprays This may also help reduce thrips problems (Jan/Feb/March) as it has been observed that thrips will come out at night onto the top surface of leaves Most thrips come out after a period of hot weather, followed by a shower in the afternoon Whiteflies are attracted to yellow sticky traps (but so are parasitic wasps) 46

51 VIRUSES IN CHILLIES There are many important virus diseases of chillies Some of them are transmitted by insect vectors (aphids, thrips and whitefly) and others are seed borne Identification of The specific virus is from characteristic visual symptoms which is alter confirmed by PCR tests in a laboratory The practical impact of a virus infection is that plants will be stunted, yields will be low and if unchecked, chilli growing may become uneconomic It is important therefore to be able to identify potential virus symptoms in a crop Symptoms are generally an unusual colour pattern on leaves or fruit and an unusual shape of the leaves or fruit Leaf symptoms: mosaic pattern, crinkled or wrinkled leaves, yellow mottling, distorted narrow blades Fruit symptoms mottle, spotting, distortion Some of the common chilli viruses are Chilli Veinal Mottle Virus Cucumber Mosaic Virus Pepper Mild Mosaic Virus Pepper Mild Mottle Virus Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus Potato Y Virus Tobacco Mosaic Virus There are at least 40 other plant viruses, mostly those which also affect tomatoes, peppers, tobacco and other Solanacae crops 47

52 MAJOR VIRUS DISEASES IN CHILLI Tomato Spotted wilt (TSWV) Symptoms Orange or bronze coloured flecks on middle or lower leaves and calyx or stems and petioles Stunting, black depressed spots TSWV is spread by thrips Very extensive on annuals, bulb crops, and weeds TSWV symptoms on chilli fruit Tobacco Mosaic Virus Variable symptoms depending on the virus strain Leaves may be light green or yellow mottling, rough edges turn down The plant may be dwarfed The fruit is small, and their may be poor fruit set with brown streaks A characteristic shoestring effect in leaves may occur on young plants TMV is a sap transmissible virus The virus spreads throughout the host plant and virus particles can be found in cells and sap throughout the plant Sap containing the virus is highly infectious Handling chilli plants leaves sap on the hands, and if this sap was from an infected plant, then the virus will be transferred via the sap on the hands to the next plant handled The virus is extremely tough and can survive in dried up sap, in plant debris or in the soil for several years It can infect the outside of chilli seeds but only infects a very small number of seed internally TMV has a wide host range including most other members of the family Solanacae including potato, capsicum, eggplant, pepino, tobacco, nightshade, and many ornamental plants and weeds These plants may be host to many different strains of tobacco mosaic virus and may be symptom-less or show severe symptoms 48

53 Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) Similar to TMV, upper leaf may be very narrow and twisted giving them a shoestring appearance that may be confused with 2, 4-D type injury Later excessive number of lateral leaflets are produced Plants may be dwarfed or stunted Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) causes foliar mosaic and mottled fruit Cucumber Mosaic Virus aphid transmitted poty virus It can be transmitted by more than 60 aphid species CMV can infect more than 800 plant species, including many vegetable crops, ornamentals, and woody plants Many weeds and cultivated crops are reservoirs of this virus Mosaic Virus (MV) Mosaic virus diseases also cause considerable damage to chilli crop Mosaic disease exhibits itself as vein clearing of the younger leaves followed by severe mottling with patches of light and dark green scattered all over the leaf surface Other important symptoms are leaf distortions, curling, marginal rolling of leaves The plants become stunted and flower production is ceased Aphids and white fly both transmit MV Pepper Mild Mottle Virus (PMMV) PMMV affects both peppers and chillies Infected plants are stunted and have sunken brown spots that look like a rot on the fruit PMMV symptoms on sweet pepper PMMV virus spreads by leaf contact, root contact and in irrigation water moving along beds PMMV survives processing of foods and passage through the human gut, and the viral particles are known to be extremely stable," There is no evidence that people should try to avoid getting this virus It most likely has no adverse effects on human health 49

54 Double streak TMV + PVX (Potato virus X or CMV) Usually affects large plants, dwarfed, spindly appearance, rolling and withering of leaves Long brown streaks on petioles and stems Irregular ripening of fruit, light brown sunken spots on green fruit Aphids are vectors of Potato Virus X As for CMV and TMV Tobacco and tomato ringspot (TRSV) Ringspot or zigzag lines on foliage, occasionally on stems, petioles, and fruit On fruit, rings are often concentric Dagger nematode, thrips, mites, grasshopper, flea beetles Very extensive; annuals, weeds, vegetables, ornamentals, tobacco, soybeans Potato virus Y (PVY) Dark brown dead areas between veins in leaflets near maturity, yellowing along veins, faint mottling on leaves; petioles curved downward; stems with purple streaking; symptoms usually become mild, but severe symptoms develop if TMV is present Aphids are vectors of Potato Virus Y Solanaceous and leguminous plants, pepper and potato 50

55 Chilli Leaf Curl Virus CLCV Chilli leaf curl is a virus transmitted by sap sucking pests such as aphids and whiteflies Control requires measures to be taken against the vectors, aphids and whiteflies In other parts of the world, viruses are a serious problem in chillies and agronomists should be aware of the symptoms Control Take immediate action to rogue infected plants and prevent transmission Put infected plants into a bag to remove them from field (do not drag crop debris through the crops as vectors will fall of the infected plants and spread throughout the crop) Burn, rouged plants Incidence of virus symptoms would always trigger a preventative spray programme for the vectors, irrespective of their numbers in the crop, since viruses are quickly transmitted Infected crops should be destroyed immediately picking is finished to prevent the spread of the virus post harvest If the crop is infested with whitefly, it is important to remove the crop only after 430 pm as temperatures begin to drop, as whiteflies do not fly in the cool of the day If these crops are removed in the heat of the day, then clouds of whitefly, carrying virus will move onto adjacent crops and spread the virus 51

56 Chilli leaf mosaic virus (CLMV) Chilli leaf mosaic virus is transmitted by aphids and whitefly vectors and can cause considerable damage to chilli crops Symptoms of infection are vein clearing of the younger leaves followed by severe mottling with patches of light and dark green scattered all over the leaf surface Other important symptoms are leaf distortions, curling, marginal rolling of leaves The plants become stunted and flower production ceases Control: Take immediate action to rogue infected plants and prevent transmission as above Observation of CLMV symptoms would always trigger a preventative spray programme for whitefly and aphids Again removal of crops in the cool of the day will reduce the spread of aphids and whitefly vectors to new plantings Limit spread of viruses in chillies Tip: The coat protein of many viruses reacts with proteins in skim milk, and hence skim milk can be used as an in-activator of viruses Skim milk is quite safe for hand washing In propagation 1 Decontaminate seed trays, tools, tables, before use by: soaking 10 minutes in 1% formaldehyde or a 1:10 dilution of a 525% sodium hypochlorite (10% Clorox) solution, do not rinse; or washing (enough to clean) in detergent at the concentrations recommended for washing clothes or dishes Keep all solutions fresh heating or steaming at 300 degrees F for 30 minutes; 2 If virus is a serious problem - sow seed in individual pots (peat pots, etc) rather than seed trays (or adopt wide spacing in seed beds) and do not touch or handle plants prior to setting in the field or greenhouse Discard pots with seedlings that show leaf twisting, mosaic, or unusual growth Do not touch other seedlings while discarding them 3 Dip hands in milk while handling plants every 5 minutes (more often if different lots of plants are handled) Rubber gloves will protect hands 4 Remove and destroy diseased plants early in the season Do not touch healthy plants with the diseased plants when removing them 52

57 5 Make sure workers or visitors do not bring virus into a propagation area Change clothing or provide overalls if workers or visitors have been in other crops and wash hands before handling the crop Take care during Open Days and training sessions visitors may have viruses on their clothing or hands if they have been in a chilli crop In commercial fields 1 Plants should be spaced to prevent leaf contact between plants as some viruses (PMMV) are spread by leaf and root contact Use a spacing of 60 cm between plants in a zig-zag pattern between the two rows of plants per raised bed 2 The chillies should be planted on a raised bed, at least 20 cm high and 1 meter wide to ensure good drainage, as some viruses can be moved in soil water (PMMV) 3 Interplant one row of maize in between two rows of chillies and have a perimeter fence of maize around the whole plot of chillies Maize is a non-host for some of the viruses transmitted by aphids (Potato Virus X and Y, Mosaic Virus and Cucumber Mosaic Virus) These viruses are transmitted in a non-persistent manner because the virus only lives on the outside of the stylet mouth-parts of the aphid When the aphid feeds on the maize plant the virus is washed off the mouth parts and it is then safe for the aphid to feed on the chilli plant without transmitting the virus 4 Use Trichoderma in the compost used to improve soil structure in the raised bed Trichoderma colonisation of the roots of chilli plants will enhance the natural resistance of the chilli plant to virus diseases (Systemic Acquired Resistance SAR) 5 Sprays of skimmed milk have been shown to be effective in preventing leaf spread, and spread by contaminated cutting tools Prepare the skimmed milk spray by adding 7 litre of skimmed milk per 15 litre knap sack Spray chilli plants once a week with skimmed milk when virus vectors (aphids, thrips and whitefly) are present 6 Disinfest equipment, tools, and hands on a regular basis while pulling, pruning, harvesting, and spraying plants, and when moving from one row or area to another 7 Remove the affected plants and destroy them as quickly as possible 8 Control vectors with insecticide sprays Biological controls may be too slow to prevent movement of the virus 9 Mineral oil sprays have been used to interfere with the transmission of all pepper viruses by aphids 53

58 10 Do not use human faeces as fertiliser for the chilli crop as this may spread the virus if the human has eaten infected chillies (PPMV can be present in human faeces) At the end of the Crop Life 11 Spray the plant bed prior to pulling or handling plants (24 hours) with whole or skim milk at the rate of 5 litres per 10 meter square Thorough coverage of plants is important 12 Immediately the last harvest is completed - destroy all chilli plants in the bed, field, or greenhouse as soon as possible after harvest Before next crop is planted 13 Rotate tomato crops with maize, cabbages or sorghum 14 Avoid following chilli crops after crops of tobacco, pepper, eggplant, tomatoes, potatoes or cucurbits 54

59 CATERPILLAR PESTS IN CHILLIES There are several caterpillar pests of chillies and their controls will be presented togther after they have been described, individually Pod Borers (Spodoptera litura, Heliothis armigera) Pod borers have many hosts and will attack chilli crops both in vegetative phase and at the time of pod formation They enter chilli pods by making a hole near calyx and feed on the chilli seed The affected pods drop off or develop a white colour on drying The fully-grown caterpillars enter the soil for pupation Heliothis armigera (also known as Helicoverpa) or Bollworm brown (top) and grey (below) forms of Heliothis adult moths Heliothis is also known as Helicoverpa and Old World Bollworm Heliothis larvae 55

60 Spodoptera litura or Armyworm Armyworm is a large moth with a wingspan of up to 3 cm with a mustard or orange coloured liver-shaped spot on the forewings that is narrowly ringed with white Longevity of adults is about 4-10 days, being reduced by high temperature and low humidity The female lays egg masses on the undersides of leaves, covering the eggs with felt made from her body hairs Young green larvae feed together on the underside of leaves and also inside flower buds Feeding damage from young larvae will produce skeletonised leaves As larvae get bigger they turn a brown, black, grey or green in colour and begin feeding on their own They will now chew up entire leaves or flowers Adult Spodoptera litoralis Egg mass of Spodoptera spp Armyworms are characterized by a pattern of fine lines along the full length of their bodies They have a dark spot near the head, just under the largest of these stripes 56

61 The young larvae (first to third instar) feed in groups, leaving the opposite epidermis of the leaf intact Later, the (4th to 6th instar) larvae disperse and spend the day in the ground under the host plant, feeding at night and early in the morning The pupal period is spent in earthen cells in the soil and lasts about days at 25 C Thus, the life cycle can be completed in about 5 weeks In Japan (Nakasuji, 1976) In the Northern Hemisphere, there may be only four generations per year because of the winter periods; but in the humid tropics there could be 6 to 8 generations 57

62 58 False codling moth

63 Cutworm (Agrotis spp) Cutworm is more likely to be a problem in land previously down to grass or in weedy land Cutworm emerges to feed at night and pesticides for cutworm are more effective if applied at this time Application of irrigation prior to spraying will encourage the emergence of cutworm from the soil and expose them to the pesticide application Cutworms are the caterpillar larvae of a nocturnal moth (Agrotis), which feed on their own, not in groups They cut the seedlings off at ground level, chewing off the stem and sometimes dragging the plants into their burrows Cutworms do not eat the whole plant, but just enough to make it fall over Female moths can lay up to 1,800 creamy white eggs either singly or in small clusters, usually on leaves Eggs hatch in 2-9 days Females often seek out more moist areas in fields to lay their eggs as this is more likely to ensure survival of the plants on which the larvae will feed Monitoring low-lying areas, prone to flooding may provide early indications of cutworm problems and ensure prompt action Some growers routinely use a pyrethroid spray at 700 am in the morning when cutworm may still be active, to control this pest If irrigation water can be applied to the crop in the later afternoon however, this can encourage cutworms to emerge from the daytime hiding places and begin feeding This would be followed by a pesticide spray to kill the cutworm larvae 59

64 Chemical controls for caterpillar pests Widespread resistance to chemical pesticides by armyworm is reported Careful resistance management strategies are advisable to secure the longer-term effectiveness of the remaining chemicals that work Real IPM Kenya, can provide training of trainers courses in how to design a Resistance Management Strategy info@realipmcom Biological controls for caterpillar pests Bacillus thuringiensis Bt Bacillus thuringiensis is a naturally occurring bacterium common in soils throughout the world Several strains can infect and kill caterpillar pests The caterpillar-specific Bts are in a group called Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki (Btk) and Bacillus thuringiensis aiawaza (Bta) Commercially available products based on both of these Bts are widely available and are generally inexpensive There are some records of resistance to the Bts because sometimes the formulation does not include living spores but only the insecticidal proteins produced by the Bacillus thuringiensis It is advisable to rotate the Btk products with the Bta products to reduce the risk of resistance Mode of action of Bt In nature, the target pest ingests the Bt and once inside the bacterium produces a protecin that is toxic to the caterpillar The toxic crystal binds with the stomach wall, making a hole in it The pest stops feeding almost straight away and eventually dies when the bacterium reproduces within its body 60

65 Bt acts by producing proteins (delta-endotoxin, the "toxic crystal") that reacts with the cells of the gut lining of susceptible insects These Bt proteins paralyze the digestive system, and the infected insect stops feeding within hours Bt-affected insects generally die from starvation, which can take several days Occasionally, the bacteria enter the insect's blood and reproduce within the insect However, in most insects it is the reaction of the protein crystal that is lethal to the insect Even dead bacteria containing the proteins are effective insecticides Bt is susceptible to degradation by sunlight Most formulations persist on foliage less than a week following application To optimise the effect of Bt Spray when caterpillars are still small Completely cover all leaf surfaces The insects must ingest the bacteria when they are feeding Spray in the evening or during cloudy (but not rainy) days There may be a need to reapply if it rains soon after application Caterpillars will take several days to die, but they will stop feeding soon after infection Bt is not persistent It may need to be reapplied Follow label instructions Mix only enough product needed and use immediately This is especially important in areas with high ph water (alkaline) Use a spreader-sticker to enhance product coverage on leaves 61

66 Viruses that kill caterpillars There are two types of viruses known to infect and kill caterpillar pests that have been mass-produced as biopesticides and widely used Nuclear polyhedroid viruses NPV Granulosis virus GV Sometimes naturally occurring viruses can occur in Heliothus and Spodoptera populations If this happens the infected larvae can be collected and have been used as a starter culture for home-made sprays of caterpillar viruses, by adding more live caterpillars and allowing them to become infected In the same way as Bt products the viruses must be ingested in order to kill the caterpillar pest NPV is a naturally present disease that kills armyworm and helps control its outbreaks Each armyworm killed by NPV can contain 2,000 million new infective particles, each capable of infecting another armyworm Thus, each insect killed by NPV can act as a new source of NPV to spread the disease However, while NPV can destroy outbreaks once it has established in the armyworm population, in most years the NPV appears too late in the outbreak cycle to prevent serious armyworm damage The solution can then be sieved and sprayed onto trap plants to kill caterpillars once they are brought to one place by providing a very attractive host plant Symptoms Different viruses cause different symptoms NPV-infected larvae may initially turn white and granular or very dark Some may climb to the top of the crop canopy, stop feeding, become limp, and hang from the upper leaves or stems, hence the common name "caterpillar wilt" or "tree top" disease Victims of a granulosis virus may turn milky white and stop feeding In both cases, the body contents of the dead larvae are liquified and the cuticle ruptures easily to release infectious viral particles Death from a virus infection usually occurs within three to eight days 62

67 Role of other biopesticides for caterpillar control If Real Metarhizium 69 OD is the backbone of an IPM programme for thrips, leafminer and fruit fly in chillies, it will have already been applied to the soil because these pests have part of their life cycle in the soil It is therefore possible that the pupae of several of the pest caterpillars which are in the soil, will be infected with the Metarhizium and fail to emerge as adults Other Metarhizium isolates have been tested against caterpillar larvae, adults and pupae and found to infect them Real IPM is currently testing its isolates against caterpillar pests Metarhizium infection in Heliothis caterpillar Pheromones Most economically important caterpillar pests have got commercially produced pheromones which are used in monitoring devices and which could also be used in auto-dissemination devices together with Real IPM Metarhizium using the re-charge packs for fruit fly AD devices Trap crops for caterpillars Adult moths do not directly damage crops they feed on nectar But the eggs that they lay, turn into caterpillars that cause significant commercial damage Moths can usually lay many hundreds of eggs Therefore any reduction in the number of adult moths will have a very significant reduction in the number of caterpillars damaging the crop A single armyworm moth for example will lay between 500 and 3,000 eggs 63

68 Moth and caterpillar predators and parasitoids Caterpillars are prey for a wide range of predators and parasitoids, which are usually killed by broad-spectrum sprays of pyrethroids and organophosphates The benefit of Real Metarhizium is that it does not kill these natural enemies These include Trichogramma (parasitic wasp of caterpillar eggs), ichneumon wasps, earwigs, tachinid flies, braconid wasps, chalcid wasps, carabid beetles, and ants Spiders eat codling moth eggs, moths and larvae Birds and bats are also an important tool in keeping moths and caterpillar levels in check Metarhizium harms neither bats nor birds Cultural methods for conserving these populations in the perennial fruit orchard are described below Conservation of indigenous natural enemies Large numbers of any natural enemy will not be found in places where they do not have enough prey to feed on When an orchard has been under a Real IPM programme for some years, the number of permanent resident pests will be lower and this will also reduce the number of permanent natural enemies In the meantime, it is necessary to both conserve those which are present and possibly augment the natural enemy populations with additional, commercially reared predators and parasitoids Careful use of chemical pesticides, which are compatible with natural enemies, but also still kill pests, will be needed during the transition phase Grower groups, working in the same area, can exchange natural enemies between farms, on leaf material collected form orchards Predatory mites and parasitized mealybug and wooly aphid are easily moved in this way 64 Growers may refer to the Real IPM Pesticide Compatibility Charts available free of charge from the Log-in section of the Farmers Clubs wwwrealipmcom

69 Field Insectaries Parasitic wasps often take nectar from small flowers Parasitoids that consume nectar are able to lay more eggs which makes them more effective biological control agents Umbelliferous flowers (eg coriander, dill, carrot) Other plants often used in field insectaries because they produce a lot of pollen for predatory mites are dwarf Mexican marigold and calendula The adult moths themselves may also be attracted to these flowers and could be killed by spraying the insectary with Real Metarhizium 69 In this way the pest moths would not benefit by consuming food from the flowers to help them lay more eggs in the crop Alternative egg-laying sites Some plants such as sunflower and sorghum are preferred hosts for bollworm and could be included in the field insectary design 65

70 Encouraging parasitic wasps Some species of parasitic wasps will carry caterpillars from the crop and bring them to sites where they can be bricked in with mud, after laying an egg in the caterpillar body The wasp egg develops into a larva that feeds on the caterpillar body, after pupating and emerging as an adult wasp Numbers of wasps can be enhanced if refuges are provided for them to conceal the caterpillars that they have captured in the crop Umbelliferous flowers provide nectar for beneficial insects Parasitic wasps may paralyze caterpillars before carrying them away to refugia to lay eggs in them Wasp carries away a large caterpillar to hollow reeds set up in an orchard 66

71 Mass produced parasitoids In addition to conservation methods for natural enemies, it is possible to use either augmentation methods (topping up levels of beneficial insects) or inundative releases (mass release when pest present) One of the most useful commercial parasitoids for caterpillars is Trichogramma, a tiny wasp that lays eggs inside caterpillar eggs Life cycle of Trichogramma Trichogramma wasps laying eggs in a bollworm egg 67

72 Light traps Moths are active at dusk and at night when they feed on nectar before laying eggs Nectar provides the protein required for massive egg-laying programme Using trap crops and night light traps to lure females out of the chilli crop will therefore have an impact on infestations in the chilies as killing one adult female could result in up to 3,000 less eggs laid in the chilies Heliothis will attack a wide range of hosts, including tomato, which is very susceptible and is often grown on smallholder farms If it is not controlled in the tomato crops, it will be a problem in adjacent chilli crops Repellent sprays The use of repellent neem sprays just prior to flowering is worthy of investigation, since this is known to have a repellent effect on Diamond Back Moths and may have the same effect on Bollworm (eg Heliothis/Helicoverpa) Cultural controls for Armyworm, Bollworm and cutworm All these caterpillars have a wide host range and will also feed on weeds Keeping crops weed free is an important IPM strategy Removing crop debris and keeping fields clean will also slow down the population growth of these pests Do not prepare ground too far in advance of planting, so that weeds do not develop on open ground, as this will encourage these pests Physical controls All of these caterpillars pupate in the soil Deep ploughing of fields between crops turn up larvae and pupae to the soil surface making them susceptible to predators and sun Depending on the crop, flooding of the infested field may be a feasible control method in some cases In small-scale farms, manual collection of the larvae is sufficient for control 68

73 Mites (Tarsonemus spp and Tetranychus spp) Symptoms of mite damage Two types of mites are known to infest chillies tarsonemid mites and spider mites and it is important to distinguish which mites is the cause of the problem Spider mite is easily observed with a hand lens but tarsonemid mites are much smaller and often hide along the leaf veins, where they are difficult to see Tarsonemid mites are probably first noticed when they have already caused some damage because they are very small (see below) The symptoms of tarsonemid and spider mite are different Spider mite feeding causes speckling on the leaf as it sucks the green chlorophyll from the cells Tarsonemid mite cause leaf distortion as a result of feeding - affected leaves curl downward along the margins of the leaf and attains on inverted boat shape Fruits develop a corky, distorted surface The affected plants develop dark green colour In the affected plants the vegetative growth is inhibited and flower production affected and yields are considerably reduced 69

74 Spider mite can be controlled using the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus, but tarsonemid mite is less attractive to Phytoseiulus as a prey Amblyseius is a better predator for tarsonemid mites Phytoseiulus is a predatory mite, which attacks spider mites It is particularly effective since it will walk to the underside of leaves in search of prey spider mite egg (left) Phytoseiulus adult (centre) Phytoseiulus egg (right) Juvenile Phytoseiulus is lighter in colour but still has noticeably longer legs than Amblyseius There are several indigenous Amblyseius predatory mites that can migrate into the chilli crop if the spray programme is compatible 70

75 Real IPM programme for mite pests Achieve - Real Metarhizium 78 Metarhizium 78 is specifically for mite pests It kills the mite pests but not the predatory mites So it can be used in situations where there are pest mites but not yet enough predatory mite By spraying the Metarhizium 78 onto a population of a lot of broad mites (but not many predatory mites) you will reduce the number of pest mites more than you affect the predatory mite This changes the ratio (balance of nature) between the predatory mite and the pest mites See section on scouting Apply Achieve during nursery production two weeks before planting out in the field Continue with applications to the growing crop as scouting indicates is necessary One sachet per knapsack one sachet costs 230/- Ksh each Minimum order: 50 sachets Can be ordered on line see wwwrealipmcom Amblyseius spp Real IPM produces Amblyseius spp, which will prey on whitefly, thrips, spider mite and broad mites Apply one bottle (12,500 Amblyseius) in each 25 msq of nursery plant production when the plants are touching Re-apply Amblyseius to the crop in the field once per month at a rate of 400,000 Amblyseius per acre (costs 4,000 Ksh per month) They are packed in bottles of 12,500 in each bottle and cost 125/- per bottle Minimum order 10 bottles Can be ordered on line see wwwrealipmcom 71

76 Scouting method to measure risk The pest pressure is unlikely to be even throughout the field Crop-walk the whole field first to get a feeling for the pattern of the pest distribution The edges may have higher pest levels because they are near bushes Some areas may be naturally hotter or cooler because of shade or prevailing wind Divide up the farm into a Scouting Map according to your observations and make a rough map of the different areas Give them a Label or name so that you can refer to that area in the scouting report The scouting map should also indicate the number of plants in each and an estimate of the meter square area because this will influence the number of knapsacks needed for each block or the number of predatory mites that need to be applied in each block Data The three important pieces of information needed are: 1 What is the % of the plants in the field which are infested (estimate from crop walk) 2 Of the leaves, which are showing damage (sample at least 20 damaged leaves/area) what is the average number of pest mites (spider mite and broad mite) per leaf? 3 Within the leaf sample what is the ratio of predatory mite to pest mite? How to use the ratio information A ratio of 1 Predator to 10 spider mites is well under control A ratio of 1 Predator to 50 broad mites is well under control A ratio of 1 Predator to 50 spider mites is may need topping up with more predators A ratio of 1 Predator to 100 broad mites is may need topping up with more predators A ratio of 1 Predator to 500 spider mites is a problem if the average number of spider mite per leaf is ALSO high You need to spray a compatible pesticide (Met 78 or silwet) to bring down the mite levels and then re-check the ratio and apply more predatory mites A ratio of 1 Predator to 200 broad mites is a problem if the average number of broad mite per leaf is ALSO high You need to spray a compatible pesticide (Met 78 or silwet) to bring down the mite levels and then re-check the ratio and apply more predatory mites 62

77 Fruit Flies in chillies See Real Insight on Fruit Flies fruit flies Bactrocera, Dacus, Ceratitis 73

78 FUNGAL DISEASES OF CHILLIES Fruit symptoms Fruit-rot and die back (Collectotrichum capsici) 2 Die back is a common symptom of Colletotrichum Young twigs will begin to die from the tip backwards The infection may be latent in the plant but only shows symptoms when the plant is under stress for example when flowering begins and there is a peak in demand for plant nutrients to feed the flowers There may be very heavy flower drop if the plant is infected with Colletotrichum The flower stalks dry up first and this spreads into the flowers and from there to the stems and branches This infection can severely affect the yield and quality of chillies Ripe fruits are more vulnerable to attack than green ones Small, circular, yellowish to pinkish sunken spots appear on fruits Spots increase along fruit length attaining elliptical shape Severe infection result in the shriveling and drying of fruits Tissues around lesions will be bleached and turn white or greyish in colour and lose their pungency On the surface of the lesions minute black dot like fruiting bodies called acervuli develop in concentric rings and fruits appear straw coloured The affected fruits may fall off subsequently The seeds produced in severely infected fruits are discoloured and covered with mycelial mat

79 The affected stem and the bark first turns brownish and then turn to shinny white in long and narrow strips containing several black dot like fructifications Affected twigs get with red and dry up from tip downwards, after on, the disease spreads to the fruits also Circular to oval, black sports occur on the ripe pods Severally affected pods turn straw coloured instead of normal red, shrivel and dry up Life cycle Colletotrichum survives on seeds from infected fruit and also on crop debris in the field The conidia area spread by rain splash and movement on pickers hands Real IPM Programme This disease is seed borne and it is not advisable to use self-saved seeds for this reason Buy and use certified disease-free seeds Bio-primed seeds may reduce the risk of seed borne pathogens and viruses (see above) Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all infected pods and plant debris and rogue all infected plants immediately Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation this will help to enhance the plants immune system Regularly apply Real Bacillus subtilis as a foliar spray this will act as a bio-fertiliser as well as reduce foliar diseases in general Tank mix with an appropriate fungicide only if disease symptoms occur Timing: Just before flowering and at fruit formation and again 2 weeks later Copper oxychloride and sulphur have been used for this disease control 75

80 Powdery mildew (Oidiopsis taurica) Symptoms Yellow, chlorotic patches on the upper surface of the leaf, may dry out and die; whilst on the lower surface white powdery patches can be observed Powdery white patches of spores develop on the lower surface of the leaves Severe infections can cause leaves to turn yellow and drop-off and flower production is affected Life Cycle Powdery mildew is an airborne disease and spreads quickly in suitable weather The disease progresses from the older to younger leaves and shedding of foliage is prominent symptom Real IPM Programme Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual Regularly apply Real Bacillus subtilis as a foliar spray this will act as a bio-fertiliser as well as reduce foliar diseases in general Tank mix with an appropriate fungicide only if disease symptoms occur Timing: Just before flowering and at fruit formation and again 2 weeks later 76

81 Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum and Rhizoctonia solanum) Symptoms Damping off is very common disease in nurseries Seed may rot or the seedlings may be killed before they emerge from the soil Stem of young seedlings may also be attacked after emergence showing water soaking and shrivelling of stem, which fall over and die In nursery the disease may appear in patches in 2-4 days, the entire lot of seedling may be destroyed Life Cycle Phytophthora Disease is most damaging on moist soils with poor drainage Pythium has a motile zoospore that can swim in water to new plants and begin the infection Therefore overwater will make this disease spread more quickly The fungus is mainly soil - borne It requires humidity in the range of % and a soil temperature nearer 20oC When there is sufficient moisture in the soil, it germinates and produce mycelium which later forms the asexual stage of reproduction The fungus is capable of living for many years in soil 77

82 Life cycle Rhizoctonia solani Rhizoctonia can affect both seedlings (damping off) and mature plants, if the crop is over watered If mature plants are infected it can lead to wilting and death of chilli plants Rhizoctonia solani persists in soils and organic debris Rhizoctonia inside the stem of a mature chilli plant Real IPM Programme for damping off Control of damping-off diseases is difficult 3 Damping-off must be anticipated and prevented by using seed and transplant treatments before the seed or plants are put in the field Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all seedlings Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation this will help to enhance the plants immune system Good seedbed preparation is important Shallow planting of seed and seedlings to promote rapid germination and thereby less stem exposure to the soil has been used to reduce losses from R solani damping-off Irrigation should be managed to enhance germination and growth and to avoid over watering

83 Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum fspcapsici) Symptoms Fusarium wilt is characterised by wilting of the plant and upward and inward rolling of the leaves The leaves turn yellow and die Generally appear localised areas of the field where a high percentage of the plants wilt and die, although scattered wilted plants may also occur Disease symptoms are characterised by an initial slight yellowing of the foliage and wilting of the upper leaves that progress in a few days into a permanent wilt with the leaves still attached By the time above - ground symptoms are evident, the vascular system of the plant is discoloured, particularly in the lower stem and roots Life Cycle Fungus causing this disease can live for several years in the soil High temperatures and wet soil conditions favour disease development Disease is most likely occur in poorly drained soils Hence, provision of drainage is necessary to control this disease to some extent Real IPM Programme for Fusarium Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all seedlings Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation this will help to enhance the plants immune system Apply the Real IPM Good Agricultural Practice Recommendations By the time above - ground symptoms are evident, the vascular system of the plant is discoloured, particularly in the lower stem and roots 79

84 Phytophthora Blight or Crown Rot (Phytophthora capsici) Under field conditions, P capsici has been found to affect a wide range of hosts in the Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and Solanaceae families, including: cantaloupe, cucumber, watermelon, bell pepper, tomato, snap beans, and lima beans Care needs to be taken with rotation of crops to avoid susceptible crops Caused by a water-borne fungus called Phytophthora capsici and is generally found in wet waterlogged areas The fungus invades all plant parts causing the syndromes leaf blight, fruit rot and root rot Plants suffering from this conditions often wilt and die very quickly Once the fungus enters the roots the plant is beyond saving unfortunately due to root rot The condition may also affect a section of the plant rather than the plant as a whole This section is often bordered with white mould - remove immediately Avoid excess watering of plants and try to give your soil good drainage A fungicide can be used on the leaf blight and fruit rot symptoms however root rot is usually terminal Infection of the root and lower portion of the stem leads to plant death 80

85 Life cycle Various types of Phytophthora spores are produced from rot lesions in fruits and stems These spores can then directly penetrate the leaves, stems, fruits or roots of host plants The pathogen is soil-borne and also spread by rain splashes or running water Warm wet weather and damp soil promotes this disease The disease may appear as damping-off of young seedlings, a root and crown rot of plants, or blight on leaves, stems and fruits Real IPM Programme for Phytophthora Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all seedlings Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation this will help to enhance the plants immune system Apply the Real IPM Good Agricultural Practice Recommendations 1 Phytophthora has a motile zoospore so is able to swim in water It can be present in river water used for irrigation and overhead irrigation In furrow-irrigated fields, there is a row-delimited pattern of wilted plants 2 The disease can be spared by rain splash from the soil Organic mulches will help reduce rain splash as well as help to conserve soil moisture If excess rainfall is a recurring problem, growers should consider growing on raised beds to reduce Phytophthora 3The fungus is soil borne, so reducing populations of the pathogen through crop rotation is Good Agricultural Practice 4Soil solarisation may help reduce inoculum in the soil 81

86 Leaf spots (Cercospora capsici) Leaf spots, which occur on the stem or leaf, which are oblong or circular with a small light grey centre and a dark margin, are likely to be Cercospora Normally the cells in the spots die out and the dry tissue fall out of the leaf, leaving a hole If infections are severe, leaf drop will occur Early symptoms are small yellow/green to brown spots on the young leaves, which develop into darker, water-soaked lesions It has the nickname frog eye because of the pattern of the leaf spot The bacteria spread along the veins where water collects and the lesions take on a characteristic angular pattern because of the way the bacteria spreads on the leaf The leaf spots become enlarged (3 6 mm in diameter and the centres will dry out to a straw colour with a dark margin Leaves turn yellow and drop-off in severe infections Cercospora is seed borne and it is important to use only disease free, certified seed and sue the Real IPM bio-priming protocol Foot rot or Southern Blight (Sclerotium rollftsii) Sclerotinia is a very persistent soil borne disease with many hosts It is encouraged by over watering and is prevalent in hot wet seasons Plants wilt due to the fungus girdling the stem and causing rots at the soil surface The fungus has a white growth with small brown seeds in the mycelium It can be visible above and below the soil surface 82

87 Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae and V albo-atrum) Verticillium is a soil-borne fungi which can infect the chili plant at any growth stage Visual symptoms of the disease include stunting, defoliation and wilting, with discoloration of the vascular system Infected plants may exhibit physiological changes such as reduction in photosynthesis, increased plant transpiration, and respiration Cool air and low soil temperatures can worsen the condition If the stem is cut, a brown discolouration may be visible Even within a plant, one side of a bush may be infected whilst the other side remains green In the field, the disease first appears in a single plant or a small group of wilting plants (foci) scattered throughout the field, depending on the distribution of the pathogen in soil 83

88 BACTERIAL DISEASES OF CHILLIES Bacterial leaf spot 4 (Xanthomonas campestris) 5 Xanthomonas is seed borne and can survive in soil The disease is therefore more likely to develop in the propagation nursery Rapid detection kits using plant sap can detect it Early symptoms are small yellow/green to brown spots on the young leaves, which develop into darker, water-soaked lesions The bacteria spread along the veins where water collects and the lesions take on a characteristic angular pattern because of the way the bacteria spreads on the leaf The leaf spots become enlarged (3 6 mm in diameter and the centres will dry out to a straw colour with a dark margin Leaves turn yellow and drop-off in severe infections Fruit spots (up to 05 cm, 02 in) begin as pale-green, water-soaked areas, which eventually become raised, brown, and roughened Spots may provide entrance points for various fungal and other bacterial invaders that can cause secondary fruit rots 4 wwwapsnetorg/edcenter/intropp/lessons/prokaryotes/pages/bacterialspotaspx 5 wwwapsnetorg/edcenter/intropp/lessons/prokaryotes/pages/bacterialspotaspx 84 The bacterial spot pathogen alone does not cause fruit rot

89 Life cycle of bacterial leaf spot The bacteria have a very limited survival period of days to weeks in the soil, and thus their survival is almost always in association with debris from infected or diseased plants The pathogen can survive in association with seed, either externally or internally Real IPM Programme for Xanthomonas Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all crop debris Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation this will help to enhance the plants immune system Regularly apply Real Bacillus subtilis as a foliar spray Apply the Real IPM Good Agricultural Practice Recommendations 85

90 Bacterial canker (Corynebacterium) and Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia) causing scabby canker spots or soft rots of pods (respectively) Suspect bacteria if the rot is foul smelling or there is a milky stream of fluid exuding from cut stems held under water Erwinia soft rot in chilllies Copper fungicides offer limited control under favourable conditions (eg not too wet) Prevention is easier than cure (nursery and field hygiene and good irrigation management If bacterial diseases are suspected, drip irrigation is less likely to encourage spread of the disease than overhead irrigation Bacterial Wilt ( Ralstonia solanacearum - formerly called Pseudomonas solanacearum) Warm weather and poor drainage promotes this disease The lower leaves may turn yellow, wilt and drop, and plants may die if disease advances Vascular bundles in the lower stem turn brown when stems are pressed When stems are cut and placed in water, milky streams of bacteria ooze from the plant This disease occurs primarily in the humid periods Control: Resistant varieties, coupled with good drainage, liming, and crop rotation, are the best approach to disease control This pathogen is not internally transmitted in seeds 86

91 Scouting guide for main pests and diseases of chillies Cutworms Caterpillars are grey, greenish-brown to brown in colour with a smooth skin They normally curl-up when disturbed Caterpillars feed at night and hide in the soil during the day Scout for seedlings cut off at the base of the stem Check for cutworms in the soil near the damaged plants Check field for cutworms before transplanting or before plants emerge when direct sowing is doneif pheromone traps are used to monitor appearance of moths check them regularly Aphids Check for small colonies on young leaves and shoots When the numbers are high the plant maybe covered with honeydew and black sooty mould Check also for the presence of natural enemies Parasitised aphids, known as mummies, are easily recognised, as they turn hard, and brown in colour Larvae and adults of ladybird beetles, lacewings and hoverflies are normally found within or near the colony of aphids Fruit flies Monitor fruits for egg-laying scars (dimples or small white specks in the middle of a shallow indented area on the surface of the fruit) Check appearance of flies on traps Fruit flies are 4-7 mm long, brightly coloured, usually in brown-yellow-black patterns The wings are spotted or banded with yellow or brown margins Caterpillars For early detection scout for eggs and small caterpillars especially on young leaves, flower buds and shoots Once the caterpillars get into the flowers and fruits they are well protected and damage has been done Helicoverpa moths lay single eggs while Spodoptera moths lay eggs in groups (masses) covered with scales or hairs on the lower leaf surfaces or on the structures of greenhouses The colour of the caterpillars is very variable Helicoverpa young caterpillars are olive green to reddish brown, have a dark head and coarse black hairs that gives them a spiny appearance Older caterpillars are olive green or dark grey or brown with alternating light and dark stripes running lengthwise on the body and two typical side stripes They may reach 3-5 cm when fully grown Spodoptera caterpillars vary from green, yellowish white to brown and have lines along the body or dark spots on the dorsal side, according to the species The size of the mature caterpillars varies from 3 to 45 cm long depending on the species 87

92 If pheromone traps are used to monitor appearance of moths, check them regularly Helicoverpa moths are about 15 cm long, yellowish brown in colour, with greyish wavy lines and a dark mark on each forewing Spodoptera littoralis moths are about 2 cm long, brown in colour with a large number of pale yellow lines across the forewings S exigua are smaller (12 cm), brownish-grey with two small spots on the forewings Leafminers For early detection check the upper surface of young leaves for punctures made by adults while feeding and laying eggs The adult leafminer is a tiny (2-3mm long) blackish yellow fly Check for presence of mines on leaves Mines in young leaves indicate recent attacks Check mines for presence of parasitised maggots (dark in colour in contrast to yellow colour of healthy maggots) Check yellow traps (sticky or water traps) for presence of leafminer flies and parasitic wasps such as Diglyphus For early detection check the underside of young leaves for presence of adults and eggs Whitefly adults resemble very small moths (about 1 mm long), are white in colour They are often found in groups on the lower leaf surface and readily fly away when the plant is shaken Eggs are elliptical, about 02 to 03 mm long, attached vertically to the leaf surface They are normally laid in an arc or circle on the underside of young leaves The young stages or nymphs are scale-like in shape, greenish in colour and are covered or surrounded by wax They are found on the underside of intermediate-aged and old leaves They do not move When they are many the plant may be partially or completely covered by sooty mould Check yellow traps if used Thrips For early detection check the underside of leaves, the apices of young fruits and shake flowers on a white piece of paper and look for the thrips Check the underside of leaves for a silvery sheen and/or small, dark spots of faecal material The upper side of older leaves turns brown Monitor adult thrips by hanging coloured (blue, yellow or white) sticky or water traps in the nursery or field Check traps regularly Check for natural enemies Pirate (Orius) bugs are commonly found in the flowers when thrips are present 88

93 Broad mites Broad mites are very small (01-02 mm long) and cannot be seen with the naked eye, and are difficult to detect with a hand lens For early detection check for symptoms such as necrosis on the lower leaf surfaces, deformation (elongation and curling) of young leaves Spider mites: Check plants at the edges of the field as mites can be dispersed by wind and infestation start in patches often on plants along the border To detect early infestation look out for white speckling (clusters of yellow-white spots) of the upper leaf surface and check lower surface of leaves mainly along the main veins for presence of eggs and mites Mites are tiny (about 05 mm long) oval in shape with an arched back and have eight legs, except in the larval stage when they have six legs The colour of the adult mite varies from yellowish green, brownish red to dark red according to the species The eggs, which look like a droplet of water, can be seen only with a hand lens A magnifying lens will also be handy to determine if they are alive This is particular important to determine if an intervention (eg spraying with acaricides) has been successful Diseases: Early symptoms of the major diseases: Damping-off Seedlings fail to emerge (pre-emergence damping-off), small seedlings collapse (post-emergence damping-off) or seedlings are stunted (root rot and collar rot) Seedbeds affected appear patchy In the field, seedling diseases are conduced by cold, wet periods Anthracnose Small tan flecks develop on cotyledon leaves shortly after emergence Spots on leaves and fruits are small, sunken with dark fungal spores on them, and a characteristic concentric ring (target-shaped) appearance The fungus causes rapid infection only during heavy fog, dew or drizzle The disease is most serious on ripe fruits Powdery mildew On the upper leaf surface, chlorotic blotches or yellow spots, which may become necrotic are symptomatic On the lower leaf surface, a white to grey powdery growth may develop Warm temperatures and high relative humidity favour the disease 89

94 Fusarium wilt The first visible symptom is drooping of the lower leaves Later, younger shoots turn yellow, die and turn brown Invaded roots become soft and develop a water-soaked appearance Sliced roots exhibit a reddish brown colour in the wood The disease is favoured by warm temperatures and high soil moisture and thus particularly serious in poorly drained soils Bacterial spot Leaf spots first appear as small, circular, pale green pimples that are raised on the under surface of the leaf while the top surface of the spot may be depressed slightly On older leaves, spots often are first dark green and water-soaked Fruit spots are circular, initially green but become brown and raised with a cracked, roughened and wart-like surface (scabby appearance) Warm temperatures and high relative humidity with free moisture on leaves favour disease development Bacterial soft rot Rot symptoms usually start as a sunken area, either from the peduncle or around a skin puncture The rot spreads rapidly until the entire fruit collapses into a soft slimy mass (resembling a sack of liquid retained by the skin) When the skin breaks the contents flow out It is most destructive market disease Warm temperatures and high moisture favour disease development Bacterial wilt First symptom is drooping of all leaves resembling symptoms of soil moisture deficiency This is particularly conspicuous when it is hot Drooping of leaves is followed by a sudden, permanent wilt of the entire plant with no leaf yellowing or browning Roots of infected plants are discoloured Cross sections cut from lower stems and roots of infected plants exude milky streams of bacteria from the vascular system when suspended in water Warm temperatures and high soil moisture favour disease development Virus diseases: It is nearly impossible to identify specific pepper viruses on the basis of symptoms observed on pepper plants and fruits in the field Symptoms include mosaic patterns, mottling, leaf deformation (including small-sized leaves), leaf curling, chlorosis, stunting (dwarfing) of plants when plants are attacked at early growth stages, and spotting (including ring spots), line patterns and distortion of fruits Since many of the pepper viruses are transmitted by pests (aphids, leaf hoppers, mites, thrips and whiteflies), it is important to check for these pests during scouting Most viruses are serious in arid and semiarid areas where high temperatures prevail Root-knot nematodes: Aboveground symptoms may include stunting, drooping of leaves, lack of vigour and wilting of plants Roots of affected plants develop small knots or galls Severely affected roots rot Root-knot nematodes are most damaging in sandy soils and in warm climates 90

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