Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design. VOLUME 4 Toward the Integration of Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization

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1 Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design VOLUME 4 Toward the Integration of Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization

2 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Irwin Altman, Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah Gilles Barbey, Architecte EPFZ, Lausanne, Switzerland Robert B. Bechtel, Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Michael Brill, Buffalo Organization for Social and Technological Innovation, Inc., Buffalo, New York Gary W. Evans, Department of Design and Environmental Analysis, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Mark Francis, Department of Landscape Architecture, University of California, Davis, California Tommy Garling, Department of Psychology, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden Linda N. Groat, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan Stephen Kaplan, Psychological Laboratories, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan M. Powell Lawton, Philadelphia Geriatric Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania William Michelson, Department of Sociology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Rudolf H. Moos, Social Ecology Laboratory, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, California Toomas Niit, Department of Sociology, Institute of Philosophy, Sociology, and Law, Tallinn, Estonia George L. Peterson, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service, Ft. Collins, Colorado J. Douglas Porteous, Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada Amos Rapoport, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Andrew D. Seidel, College of Architecture, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas Maija-Leena Setala, Tampere Regional Institute of Occupational Health, Tampere, Finland Daniel Stokols, School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, California Takashi Takahashi, Department of Architecture, Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan Ross Thome, Department of Architecture, Sydney University, Sydney, Australia Seymour Wapner, Heinz Werner Institute for Developmental Analysis, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts John Zeisel, Hearthstone, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, and Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Ervin H. Zube, School of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona

3 Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design VOLUME 4 Toward the Integration of Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization Edited by GARY T. MOORE University of Sydney Sydney, Australia and ROBERT W. MARANS University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Published in cooperation with the Environmental Design Research Association SPRINGER SCIENCE+ BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

4 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / by Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1997 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition AII rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

5 D Contributors James R. Anderson, Housing Research and Development Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois David Canter, Department of Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZA, England Gary W. Evans, Department of Design and Environmental Analysis, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Robert Gifford, Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada Harry Heft, Department of Psychology, Denison University, Granville, Ohio Donald W. Hine, Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada Denise L. Lawrence-Zuiiiga, Department of Architecture, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California Stephen J. Lepore, Department of Psychology, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Gary T. Moore, Faculty of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia Jack L. Nasar, City and Regional Planning, Austin E. Knowlton School of Architecture, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Dita Peatross, Department of Facilities Planning, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, Florida v

6 vi Contributors Robert Sommer, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California Jennifer A. Veitch, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A OR6, Canada Sue Weidemann, BOSTI Associates, Buffalo, New York Gerald D. Weisman, Institute on Aging and the Environment, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Craig Zimring, College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332

7 D Preface This fourth volume in the Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design series continues the intent of earlier volumes by exploring new directions in the multidisciplinary environment-behavior (EB or EBS) field. The series is organized around a framework of theory, methods, research, and utilization that some say has defined the field for the past 15 years. This fourth volume is devoted to chapters that explore the integration of theory, quantitative and qualitative research, and utilization in policy, planning, and architecture. The authors selected for this volume exemplify the multidisciplinary character of the field-they have been selected from architecture, environmental psychology, environmental studies, housing research, landscape architecture, social anthropology, social ecology, urban design, and urban planning; from academe and practice; and from Australia, Europe, and North America. HISTORY OF THE ADVANCES SERIES The idea for the series emerged in 1983 at meetings of the Board of Directors of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA). Several publishers were contacted about the possibility of an EDRA Annual Review. Eliot Werner at Plenum Press expressed great interest but suggested that an Advances series would be more appropriate since publication could be tied to a less specific timetable. EDRA, Plenum, and the editors signed a contract in June 1984 for three volumes, with an open door for oral agreements between Plenum and the editors after that time. Four volumes have been published (Volume 1, 1987; Volume 2,1989; Volume 3,1991; and the current Volume 4), each containing 10 to 12 chapters. Series Editors. Ervin Zube and Gary Moore launched the series. After Volume 3, Erv Zube resigned in order to devote more time to research on vii

8 viii Preface landscape management (see the Preface to Volume 3,1991). With the concurrence of the board, Robert Marans joined Gary Moore as coeditor for Volume 4. Editorial Philosophy and Content. From the beginning, the idea of the series has been to produce volumes that would summarize, critically analyze, and synthesize major domains of EB research and professional utilization. The series has tried to emphasize state-of-the-art contributions from leading scholars in the broad array of disciplines contributing to environment, behavior, and design. It has attempted to balance-and in the current volume, to show integrations among-theory, methods, research, and utilization. Each volume has attempted to highlight the most important advances in the field since the publication of the Handbook of Environmental Psychology (though published in 1987, the same year as the first Advances, it was begun considerably earlier) and since the publication of the previous Advances. The series has aspired to extend the Handbook and to produce an archive of the most important advances in the field. Relation to EDRA and laps Conferences. As the series evolved, ideas for new chapters were examined in a series of symposia at EORA conferences in North America and at laps (International Association for People-Environment Studies) conferences in Europe. The best contributions have appeared subsequently as chapters. Critical Review. Critical review of the series has been very supportive. Academic and professional colleagues in the United States, Canada, Europe, Asia, and Australia have responded enthusiastically. The series is now on the shelves of leading academics throughout much of the industrialized world, and it is used widely in various architecture, environmental psychology, and social ecology undergraduate and graduate programs. Reviews of individual volumes and of the series have appeared in a variety of academic and professional journals, including Contemporary Sociology, Environment and Behavior, the Journal of Environmental Psychology, and the Journal of Architecture and Planning Research. The most comprehensive review appeared in the August 1995 issue of the American Psychological Association's Contemporary Psychology. End of the Series. The editors would have loved to see the series continue, but think it best to end with this volume. At the time the current editors were agreeing to Volume 4, Eliot Werner suggested that we all take a long look at the series in comparison to other ways in which we might more productively spend our time. While this particular series has come full circle, it is our firm belief that EORA in North America and laps in Europe may well wish to continue being a part of active partnerships with major pub-

9 Preface ix lishers to ensure a steady stream of handbooks and advances-type series in the field. Meanwhile both senior editors are moving on to new and challenging intellectual pursuits in the field. The series has come full circle, starting with chapters on the endpoints of the epistemological continuum-radical phenomenology and radical empiricism-and ending with chapters that we hope point the way to new integrations across theories, research, methods, and utilization. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In the preparation of Volume 4, we were assisted by many people. We would like to thank Robert Bechtel, Michael Brill, Kimberly Devlin, Mark Francis, Tommy Garling, Linda Groat, Stephen Kaplan, Powell Lawton, William Michelson, Rudolf Moos, George Peterson, Amos Rapoport, Andrew Seidel, Seymour Wapner, and Ervin Zube for reviewing and offering valuable comments on chapter drafts. We extend our appreciation to EDRA and its various Boards of Directors and Publications Committees for a close and fruitful working partnership. The series would not have existed were it not for your cooperation. We would like to extend a special thanks to our International Editorial Advisory Board (see the earlier series page), whose members have worked with us over the years, offering advice on the series as a whole and on topics and potential authors, and reviewing drafts of all chapters. And we would like to thank Eliot Werner, our executive editor, and the very able staff at Plenum Press for all their advice and assistance. We have enjoyed working with all of you-authors, reviewers, Advisory Board, EDRA, and Plenum Press-the series has benefited from your many efforts. GARY T. MOORE ERVIN H. ZUBE ROBERT W. MARANS

10 o Contents 1 Toward Environment-Behavior and Design Theories of the Middle Range: I. Their Structure and Relation to Normative Design Theories 1 Gary T. Moore The Nature of Theory 2 Historical Context 2 What Is a Theory? The Two Essences of Theory 4 Explanatory Theory: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 6 The Form and Scope of Theories 7 Form: World Views, Frameworks, Models, and Explanatory Theories 8 Scope: Big T Grand Theories, Little t Theories, and Theories of the Middle Range 16 Environment and Behavior Theories 20 The Form of Different EB Theories 21 The Scope of EB Models and Theories 21 Are There Different Types of Theories? Whither Design Theories? 22 Programs and Manifestos 23 Normative Design Theories: Principles to Be Followed 24 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 27 Possible Linkages between EB and Design Theories 27 Analysis, Evaluation, and the Construction of Frameworks of Theories 33 Some of the Many Remaining Questions about Theory in Relation to Research and Practice 34 References 36 xi

11 xii Contents 2 Studying Culture and History in Exotic Places and at Home 41 Denise 1. Lawrence-Z6ftiga General Comments on Cultural Definitions, Theories, and Methods 42 Culture-Environment Approaches 44 Early Influences on Culture-Environment Studies 46 Explicit Cultural Approaches and the Exotic 48 Amos Rapoport's Work on Built Form 48 Irwin Altman's Work on Spatial Dimensions of Behavior 51 Some Specific Applications of Cultural Theories 52 Culture and History 56 History and Culture 60 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 62 References 65 3 The Relevance of Gibson's Ecological Approach to Perception for Environment-Behavior Studies 71 Harry Heft The Ecological Approach to Perception: An Overview 72 Representational Theories of Perception 72. The Econiche and Perception 74 Ecological Optics 75 The Nature of Stimulus Information 77 Perceptual Systems 78 Person-Environment Reciprocity 79 The Concept of Affordance 80 The Natural-Cultural Distinction and Environmental Meaning 82 The Ecological Approach Applied to EB Research and Design 84 The Problem of Environmental Description 84 Perceiving and the Problems of Navigation and Way-Finding 94 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 102 References Function, Form, and Space Paradigms for EB Research The Facets of Place David Canter

12 Contents xiii A Theory of Place 115 The Integration of Paradigms 115 Place as a Focus 118 Conflicting Goals for Place Use 119 The Evolution of Places 120 The Facet Approach 122 Demands on Methodology 122 Facet Theory or Approach 123 The Facets of Place 124 A General Mapping Sentence 129 Testing Facet Models of Place Experience 131 Actions and Space 131 Purposive Evaluation 137 Place Form and Meaning 141 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 143 Linking Function, Space, and Form 143 Exploring the Development and Decay of Places 144 Developing Place Programming 145 References New Developments in Aesthetics for Urban Design 149 Jack L. Nasar Urban Design Aesthetics 150 Building Exteriors as a Domain of Urban Design 150 Definition of Aesthetic Response 152 Why Study Aesthetic Response to Building Exteriors? 154 Theoretical Concerns 157 A Theoretical Framework for Urban Design Aesthetics 157 Affect: With and without Cognition 159 Two Kinds of Aesthetic Variables: Formal and Symbolic 159 Empirical Evidence: Formal Variables 162 Complexity 164 Order 165 Spatial Variables 166 Some Practical Concerns 167 Empirical Evidence: Symbolic Variables 167 Naturalness and Built Nuisances 167 Style 169 Schema Discrepancy 171 Individual and Sociocultural Differences 172

13 xiv Contents New Directions 175 Historiometric Methods of Inquiry 175 Aesthetic Programming 180 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 186 References Cultural Aspects of Workplace Organization and Space 195 Craig Zimring and Dita Peatross What Is "Culture"? 196 A Critique of Institutional Rationality or More Effective Control? 196 Culture as a Variable 197 Symbolic Identification in the Workplace 199 Diagnosing Organizations: Mechanistic and Organic Solidarity and Frames and Attributes 199 Designing Offices for SOlidarity and for Frames and Attributes 201 Diagnosing Organizations: Collectivism/Individualism and Power Distance 202 Designing Offices for Collectivism / Individualism and Power Distance 204 Summary: A Framework for Understanding the Role of Design for Symbolic Identification 206 Cultural Issues in Communication in the Workplace 207 Direction and Structure of Communication 207 Modes of Communication 208 A Working Model of Culture and Communication 209 An Example of Cultural Differences in a Workplace 210 Methods and Research Design 211 Findings 211 Discussion 216 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 218 References Meta-Analysis for Environment-Behavior and Design Research, Illuminated with a Study of Lighting Level Effects on Office Task Performance 223 Robert Gifford, Donald W. Hine, and Jennifer A. Veitch The Dream of Combining Study Information: Meta-Analysis as a Tool for EB and Design Research 223 Meta-Analysis 224

14 Contents xv Meta-Analytic versus Narrative Integration Approaches 227 A Central Concept: Effect Size 229 Criticisms of Meta-Analysis 234 An Illustrative Study: Light Levels and Performance 239 The Background: Hawthorne's Legacy 239 Refining the Hypothesis 242 Method 243 Results 247 Discussion 249 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 250 References Moderating and Mediating Processes in Environment-Behavior Research 255 Gary W. Evans and Stephen J. Lepore Moderation 256 Types of Moderation 256 Higher-Order Moderation 261 Mediation 261 Types of Mediation 261 Multiple Mediation 264 Rival Hypotheses of Mediator Processes 265 Mixing Moderators and Mediators 267 Mediated Moderation 267 Moderated Mediation 269 Moderator to Mediator Shift 269 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 270 Appendix A: Analysis of Moderator Processes 273 Appendix B: Analysis of Mediator Processes 277 Detecting Mediation 277 Reverse Causality 278 Reciprocal Causality 279 Feedback 279 Spuriousness 280 References Developing and Utilizing Models of Resident Satisfaction 287 James R. Anderson and Sue Weidemann Two Views of Research Utilization: Theory Development and Problem Solution 287

15 xvi Contents Combining Problem Solving and Theory Development: A Program of Research 291 Satisfaction 291 Program of Research 294 Summary of the Program of Research 302 Lessons for Research Utilization 303 There Is a Place for a Criterion in Problem Solution as Well as in Theory Development 303 Changes Guided by Research Information Can Achieve Desired Results 304 There Are Opportunities for Comparative Research, but Careful Planning Must Occur 305 Quality of Information May Be More Critical for Design and Problem Solving than for Theory Development 306 Multiple-Site Evaluations Provide Different Benefits than Single-Site Evaluations 306 Cross-Cultural Studies Indicate Response Differences 307 Theory Need Not Be Neglected at the Expense of Problem Solution 307 There Is No Perfect Process 308 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 308 What Is the Nature of the Relationship between Satisfaction and Related Variables? 309 If Satisfaction Is a Criterion, How Does It Relate to Other Outcome Variables? 309 How Far Can We Generalize Our Results? 310 References Environments for Older Persons with Cognitive Impairments: 315 Toward an Integration of Research and Practice Gerald D. Weisman The Integration of Research and Practice Philadelphia Geriatric Center Wesley Hall John Douglas French Center Gardiner Alzheimer's Care Center Corinne Dolan Alzheimer Center Woodside Place University of Southern California Caring Home Project Miami Pathways Project

16 Contents xvii Conceptualizing the Environment 324 People with Dementia 326 Social and Organizational Environment 329 Physical Settings 330 Therapeutic Dimensions of the Environment as Experienced 331 Comparison with Non-Dementia-Specific Facilities 335 Therapeutic Outcomes 336 Outcomes for Older Persons with Cognitive Impairments 336 Staff Responses 339 Family Caregivers 340 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 341 References Utilization Issues in Environment-Behavior Research 347 Robert Sommer The Implementation Gap 347 Three Research Models 348 Academic Model 348 Applied Model 349 Action Research Model 350 Other Dissemination Mechanisms 352 Direct Consultation 352 Trade Periodicals 353 Expert Witness Testimony 353 Boards, Task Forces, and Selection Committees 354 New Utilization Mechanisms 354 Cooperative Extension Specialists 354 Post-Research Evaluation 358 Follow-up Interviews 360 Implications for Action 361 Need for Technical Assistance 362 Implications for Future Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization 363 References 366 Contents of Previous Volumes 369 Index 373

17 Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design VOLUME 4 Toward the Integration of Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN EVALUATION

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN EVALUATION Arnold Friedmann University of Massachusetts, Amherst Craig Zimring Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Ervin Zube University of Arizona, Tucson This concise, highly