Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings

Transcription

1 3 Building Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings 3.1 Building Applications The construction field is forced to comply with the most encompassing set of regulations. In Germany the requirements for fire prevention and protection are contained in or regulated through zoning regulations, building permits, and guidelines, as well as construction-specific codes such as DIN [1]. Analogous regulations are promulgated through, for example, the building regulations in the UK, building codes in the USA, or the guidelines of the fire police in Switzerland. According to DIN [1], combustible building materials are categorised into B1: schwerentflammbar (heaving burning), B2: normal entflammbar (normal burning) or B3: leichtenflammbar (light burning), using both a small burner test and a large chimney test procedure. The small burner test consists of a vertically oriented specimen, which is exposed on either edge or side to a specific ignition flame for 15 seconds. To obtain a B2 classification, the flame front may not have reached a previously marked line at 150 mm within a 20 second time interval inclusive of the 15 second flame exposure time. The test for possible B1 performance uses four vertically arranged test samples, mm. The samples, in this in case a chimney arrangement, are exposed to a flame source at their lower edge using a gas ring burner for periods of ten minutes. Test criteria consist of use of an undamaged length of sample and control of combustion gas temperatures. Dripping behaviour, if any, is noted even though it is not part of the test classification. However, such an observation may be required to obtain the necessary building permits. Enhanced tests and performance criteria have been developed for classification of composites into B1, B2, and B3 categories. Floor coverings are evaluated for B1 performance, using both a critical flux test and a modified small burner test procedure. To obtain a B2 rating using this modified test requires an increased time of 30 seconds. The critical radiant flux test measures the contribution to flame spread of a horizontally oriented test sample. The sample is exposed to a radiant energy flux of varying intensity. The flames may not propagate past the 0.45 W/cm 2 exposure limit. This so-called critical limit was determined using wood parquet flooring. 45

2 Characteristics and Analysis of Non-Flammable Polymers Single burning item test for class B, C, and D materials or intermediate combustibility have been introduced [2] and equipment is now available for carrying out six new test methods for European-wide classification of construction products. It has proved difficult to determine any correlation between the test results of the various national procedures [3]. Because of this, the experts of TC92 of the International Standards Organization (ISO) have undertaken the development of a test procedure to characterise independently, ignitability, flame spread, rates of heat release, and other fire related parameters [4 6]. Worldwide efforts continue to correlate laboratory tests to real life fires [4]. Examples of such programmes are the corner test programme carried out by Factory Safety Manual and the corrugated metal tool deck [7-9] trials carried out by the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO). The corner test has been used to determine the fire behaviour of rigid foam materials when exposed to a severe wood fire. Construction elements and special constructions: The fire resistance of constructions that form an enclosed space is determined by the phenomenon of flashover, i.e., the extension of the fire from the room of origin to adjacent spaces. Containment of the fire is through a sufficiently high fire resistance performance of the components forming the enclosed space, such as walls, ceilings and doors. For proper classification, it is necessary to ensure that construction details, such as holes for cables, water, or other piping, as well as joint details, do not result in weak spots allowing fire penetration. To assess fire safety of construction components properly, their performance is determined relative to thermal loading of the panels using a standard time-temperature profile in DIN [1]. Such a profile has been adopted both nationally and as ISO [10]. Construction elements are assembled into the wall or ceiling test furnace in the same form as they would be used. The elements are then subjected to the standard time-temperature exposure for the time interval corresponding to the rating desired. Acceptance requires that fire breakthrough does not occur, that structural integrity be preserved, and that temperature gradients remain within specified limits. In Germany, speciality constructions such as parapets have reduced fire performance requirements because of the lower fire risk associated with such applications. The reduced test conditions essentially consist of a modified (flattened) standardised curve according to DIN [11]. For single case evaluation of the fire performance of parapet elements, application-like model tests can be conducted using a test device currently used for testing facades [12]. Roofing is evaluated for fire spread caused by external fire sources and radiant heat. According to DIN [1] the fire source consists of 600 g of wood shavings. The test is carried out at roof inclinations of 15 and 30º. Neither burn-through nor unacceptable fire spread may occur in order to pass the performance criteria. The 46

3 Building Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings corresponding testing in the Netherlands is regulated under NEN 6065 [13] and NEN 6066 [14]. For proper risk assessment of the fire performance of metal roof constructions, model fire test studies were done [15]. The trials carried out by TNO indicated that the fire performance classification of the insulation was the main factor influencing fire spread along the upper roof system to adjacent sections. Sommer [16] has discussed the suitability of halogen-free fire retardant systems from meeting the specifications of fire regulations in the building, rolling stock and electrical industries. Representatives of various industries [17] have examined some smoke depressants and flame retardant resins introduced by various US Companies in relation to US legislation. These include smoke suppressed polyvinylchloride (PVC) (BF Goodrich) and polyurethane (PU) foams (Mobay Chemical), and smoke suppressant additives from Climax Molybdenum, and Sherwin-Williams (molybdenum compounds), Solem Industries, and Alcoa Chemicals (aluminium trihydrates, for polypropylene (PP) and PVC), Dover Chemical Corp., (aromatic bromine compound for PP), and US Borax (zinc borate) Building Wrap CSIRO, Australia [18] claim that plastic building wraps are being disadvantaged because of anomalies in the Building Code of Australia requirements relating to flammability testing. A wrap material must have a certain flammability index when tested in accordance with the Australian Standard AS [19]. Meaningful results for plastics-based materials cannot be obtained from this test, which was devised for cellulose-based materials. Plastics-based building wraps are further disadvantaged in Australia from the loading classification they receive by having their loading related to tensile strength Roofing Following the fire in 1953 at General Motors (GM) transmission plant in Livonia, Michigan, it was realised that there was a need for test methods for roofing systems. Also, there was a need for a method for measuring and evaluating smoke production from polystyrene foam. The GM fire involved a localised internal fire, which spread, fuelled by the roof covering assembly to eventually engulf the whole building. Details are given of a new UL test method, which uses oxygen consumption calorimetry to 47

4 Characteristics and Analysis of Non-Flammable Polymers quantify the roof covering materials consumption to the underdeck fire sources by capturing effluent from beneath the roof assembly and recording the rate of heat production in kw per minute. In North America, polyisocyanurate (PIR) insulation is used heavily in commercial roofing applications [20]. It has high thermal resistance and good fire properties, making it the best insulation choice. It has been known for a while that the initial thermal resistance of PIR boards will change very slowly over time. Because the lifetime of such products is long, thermal ageing is caused by the diffusion of a multitude of gases, and the insulation product is not homogeneous. The PIR industry has now identified a test method based on a Canadian Standard, CAN/ULC S770 [21], which defines the long-term thermal resistance (LTTR) as the average weighted thermal resistance over a 15 year period. One of the objectives of this paper was to compare the LTTR value predicted by this test method to those obtained from the mathematical modelling and calculation algorithms. Another aim of this study [20] was to compare the thermal resistance of pentane-blown polyurethane PIR laminate boards aged in a laboratory environment since early 1998 to those obtained from the mathematical modelling and calculation algorithms [22] Air Handling Ducts Julius [23] has discussed air-handling ducts with respect to flammability and flammability testing. The importance of corrosion resistance is also emphasised. A new performance phenolic resin (phenol resorcinol resin) was developed for usage in fibre glass reinforced plastics. It offers a flame spread and smoke rating of 10 without the usage of any additives. The product offers outstanding heat stability and aging properties to the point where continuous operating temperatures can exceed conventional thermoset resins. Its corrosion resistance in numerous organic and inorganic environments is excellent at elevated temperatures. Julius [23] discusses the ASTM E84 Tunnel Test [24] for determining flame spread and smoke density. This test is run in a 7.6 m long by 60 cm wide furnace. Two gas ports are located at the air inlet or the fire end of the test chamber. The test specimen is placed in the test chamber 19 cm above the gas ports and is sealed with an asbestos-cement board and an airtight metal lid. A thermocouple is located at the 7 m mark and records the temperature during the test run. The readings of time versus temperature are used to determine the fuel contributed. A series of windows are located along the side of the furnace to allow observation of the flame front. A light source and photoelectric cell are located in the vent pipe at least 4.9 m from the vent end of the chamber. The light absorption is used to calculate the smoke developed. A calibration run is made with asbestos cement board, which represents a 0 48

5 Building Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings classification. During a test, the gas burners are ignited and the flame should extend to 1.4 m down the funnel on the surface of the material being tested. Temperature and smoke readings are automatically recorded. An observer watches the flame front and records the position of the flame front every 30 seconds for a period of 10 minutes. The flame spread is calculated from a graph of the distance versus time. The area under the curve of this graph is determined after subtracting 1.4 m from the distance values, since this is the length of the gas flames. Often during a test of highly fire retardant plastic, the flame front recedes after burning through the material immediately over the gas flame. When plotting the flame spread rating curve, the distance value never recedes, and the maximum value is plotted to the 10 minute mark. For example, if the flame spread reaches 3.7 m at 6 minutes and then recedes, the graph area will remain at the 3.7 m mark from 6 minutes to 10 minutes. The smoke results are calculated by determining the area under the light absorption versus time curve, dividing by the light absorption versus time curve obtained using red oak as a standard material, and multiplying by 100. Overall, the tunnel test is conceptually simple, provides a large enough surface area to simulate a real fire, and gives reasonably reproducible results. Table 3.1 depicts the flame spread and smoke density values for various premium fire retardant resins. All products meet a class 1 flame spread rating with the phenol resorcinol product providing an outstanding value of 10. Table 3.1 Flame spread and smoke density values for various resins all tests conducted per the ASTM E84 [24] tunnel test* Resins Flame spread Smoke density Phenol resorcinol Brominated bisphenol A polyester Brominated bisphenol A epoxy vinyl ester a a : Contains 5% antimony trioxide. * All laminates consisted of 1 ply C-glass veil and 2 plies of chopped strand mat followed by 1 ply C-glass veil. Reproduced with permission from W.H. Julius in Proceedings of the Composites Institute 45 th Annual Conference, Washington, DC, USA, 1990, Paper No.2-D. 1990, Composites Institute [23] 49

6 Characteristics and Analysis of Non-Flammable Polymers 3.2 Harmonisation of Fire Safety Assessments Moves to harmonise fire safety assessment for building products in Europe has sparked a major shake-up in the flammability testing and classification of polymer materials [2]. As far back as 1998, over 30 tests were in use and more have been developed since then. The most radical change will be the introduction of the Single Burning Item for class B, C and D materials of intermediate combustibility, including most plastics. Two of the tests a furnace test for non-combustibility and the oxygen bomb calorimeter are used to classify the least combustible materials (classes A and B) and will apply to both flooring and non-flooring products. Flooring products are also be tested by two further tests including the floor radiant panel, while non-flooring products of appreciable combustibility, in classes E and F, are tested by an existing small burner test. However, the most radical change is in the introduction of the single burning item (SBI) test, for class B, C, and D materials of intermediate combustibility, including most plastics. Work on this test was led by the Fire Research Station at the Building Research Establishment at Garston near Watford, as the UK representative in the EC laboratories group. The SBI test was developed to simulate a single item burning close to the corner of a room, which is considered a worst-case scenario. As an intermediate scale test, it is intended to address conflicting concerns over the cost of full-scale testing and the validity of bench testing of small samples. Basically the test involves mounting a corner section specimen a vertical 1.5 m high by 1.0 m wide panel and another 1.5 m by 0.5 m at 90 degrees under an enclosed calorimeter hood. The Fire Research Station says the setup can accurately measure the rate of heat release, considered one of the most important parameters in assessing fire growth, also time to ignition, rate of lateral flame spread, time of production of flaming droplets and rate of smoke release. A full summary of publishing standards for the evaluation of construction materials is given in Appendix Mining Applications Mining applications require that specific test criteria be met because of the extraordinary difficulties in rescue and fire extinguishing efforts underground. Highly expandable and combustible blowing agents may not be used if they increase the fire hazard underground. In case of an accidental fire, the blowing agents used 50

7 Building Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings should not propagate the fire. The tunnel test facility as per DIN [25] is used, for example, to evaluate the contribution to fire spread of conveyer belts with textile inserts, such as would be used in anthracite mines. The test samples measure mm and are placed horizontally into the laboratory test tunnel. The test sample is exposed from underneath to the flame of a special propane burner for a period of 15 minutes. The burner is positioned 170 mm from the front edge of the sample. A maximum burn extent and afterburn are specified in order to meet the minimum test criteria. The basis for the standardisation of this test procedure was a series of full-scale tests carried out by the Tremonia Mining Organisation in Dortmund, Germany. Wachowicz [26] has discussed the theoretical basis for calculation of heat release rate (HRR) during burning of conveyor belts in a fire-testing gallery. Taking as an example the results of measurements of oxygen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide content in the products of combustion of conveyor belts during the testing of their flammability, the possibility has been demonstrated for using the calculations of HRR in an assessment of conveyor belt flammability. The total quantity of heat released during the belt fire can provide the basis for developing a new method of testing as well as the criteria for assessment of fire resistance of the conveyor belts using oxygen consumption calorimetry. The determination of the flammability of the conveyor belt is based on the results obtained in the drum friction test and in the full-scale gallery fire test [27 30]. The method of full-scale gallery fire test enables the basic characteristics of the fire safety to be determined including the property of the belt self-extinguishing outside the seat of the fire, and thereby determines the possibility of the fire spreading along the conveyor to other areas of the mine. This method, similar to other traditional flame methods only, enables one to observe the results of the influence of the fire after finishing the test and making the measurements of the remaining quantities after extinguishing the fire of the belt sections under test. In the 1980s, in the USA and Europe, new methods of testing the flammability of materials were introduced. They rely on calculating the HRR of materials from the rate of oxygen consumption. Huggett [31] calculated the heat released per unit mass of oxygen consumed for the organic materials in the burning process. He also proved that the effect of incomplete combustion and differentiation of the burnt materials has only a slight influence on the results obtained. These findings were of basic importance for the development of new methods of testing the flammability of materials using this relationship. The HRR is, at present, one of the most important parameters used in the assessment of the fire hazards related to the use of organic materials. 51

8 Characteristics and Analysis of Non-Flammable Polymers The trials undertaken to calculate the HRR have shown that this parameter can be used to obtain an adequate correlation of the course of burning of the belt in the full-scale gallery fire test. This makes it possible to develop a fast method of testing the flammability of conveyor belts by oxygen consumption calorimetry. Wachowicz [32] in his original paper investigates the fire testing gallery method further. The full-scale testing of the flammability of conveyor belts are carried out in the experimental fire gallery with the cross-section of 3.57 m 2 and a length of 100 m. The gallery is made of chamotte brick and the roof is semi-spherical in shape. According to the combustion test measurements in the fire-testing gallery, as presented in the Polish PN-93/C05013 [33] a standard 42 m long and 0.5 m wide section of the belt is taken for testing. The belt is placed 1 m above the floor on steel rods. The flame source is 300 kg mass of dry pine wood with a humidity of 10 ± 3%. Ventilation air is provided by a fan located at the gallery intake. The velocity of air fed into the gallery is 1.2 m/s. During the belt combustion, the temperature inside the gallery is measured, also the concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The heat release Q can be calculated from the equation: A Q Z. XCO = ; 1 - c A me XO2 Where: Z = X A O 2 (1 - X A O 2 X A CO X A CO 2 ) X A CO = the carbon monoxide concentration in the air leaving the gallery. X A O 2 = the concentration of oxygen in the air leaving the gallery. X A CO 2 = the concentration of carbon dioxide air leaving the gallery. The dependence of the amount of heat released in the course of combustion of a conveyor belt in a fire-testing gallery defines the dynamics of the belt combustion process. This relationship provides valuable information for the determination of the hazard related to the use of conveyor belts in mines [32]. Also, the calculations of the HRR during burning of the conveyor belts in the fire 52

9 Building Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings testing gallery can be the basis of the development of a new method for conveyor belt testing. In further work Wachowicz [26] compared large-scale gallery testing with cone calorimetry in the evaluation of the flammability of conveyor belts. A good correlation is shown between results of conveyor belt flammability during combustion in a fire testing gallery and predicted HRR based on bench scale cone calorimetry. The conveyor belt flammability investigations were carried out using a standard cone calorimeter. The testing of conveyor belt flammability using a cone calorimeter was to the standards, ISO [34] and ASTM E1354 [35]. 3.4 Furnishing Materials Based on detailed fire statistics [36-38] the UK has prepared fire legislation law using test and performance criteria of BS 5852 [39]. As in the USA [40], the primary consideration is the reduction of the fire risk in homes from cigarette ignition sources. In those cases where the cigarette ignition and/or the simulated match ignition conditions are not successfully passed, the furniture must be labelled to that effect and identified. All furniture is required to pass this cigarette ignition test. The test procedures are based on numerous full-scale model fire tests that were done worldwide. Aside from governmentally required testing [41, 42], industry carried out extensive testing and trials to ensure statistically correct test and performance criteria [43-47]. The British Property Service Agency responsible for furniture procurement, requires application-oriented tests with correspondingly staggered ignition sources from cigarettes to a wooden crib [48]. Squires [49] investigated the use of melt blendable phosphorus/bromine flameretardants in PP woven and non-woven fabrics and carpets. Consistent high quality injection moulded parts met V2 ratings in the UL 94 test. Good results are easily achieved with minimal fire retardant loading or the use of a synergist. The US additionally imposes materials-specific requirements. Examples of these are the California State statutes and the regulations of the New York Port Authority [50] for cushioning materials, which must meet the construction-specific tests such as ASTM E162 [15] and ASTM D2843 [15]. If the cushioning materials fail, upholstery combinations may be substituted. Handermann [51] has discussed the use of flame retardant PU for furniture and home upholstered furnishings, particularly bedding. 53

10 Characteristics and Analysis of Non-Flammable Polymers Handermann [52] has also discussed the statistics underlying the US effort to render home furnishings safe by imparting to them safe effective open-flame resistance. Also developments in flame-resistant barrier technology using Bazofil melamine fibre are summarised. Test results in both bedding and upholstered furniture applications are also examined. A classification scheme to produce optimum fibre blends to make flame resistant bonded highloft products is described. Blends of Bazofil, Visil, modacrylic and low-melt polyester fibres, in thermally bonded highloft form, are shown to provide a cost-effective, high-performance flame resistant barrier product for the home furnishings market. A patented core-spun yarn technology, consisting of fine denier glass filament, wrapped with Bazofil, modacrylic and polyester fibres was also shown to provide a suitable product for this market. Bazofil/polyester blends, which retain the features of polyester fibrefill, can be made to prevent flame penetration in horizontal test procedures. A full summary of standard test procedures for the evaluation of the retardancy in furnishings is given in Appendix References 1. DIN , Fire Behaviour of Building Materials and Building Components - Part 7: Roofing, Definitions, Requirements and Testing, Plastics and Rubber Weekly, 1998, 1730, H.W. Emmons, Fire Research Abstracts and Reviews, 1968, 10, 2, ISO TR 3814, Test for Measuring Reaction-To-Fire of Building Materials their Development and Application, ISO , Reaction to Fire Tests Spread of Flame Test Part 2: Lateral Spread on Building and Transport Products in Vertical Configuration, ISO , Plastics Smoke Generation - Part 2: Determination of Optical Density by a Single-Chamber Test, A Fire Study of Rigid Cellular Plastic Materials for Insulated Wall and Roof/ Ceiling Constructions, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, USA, H. Zorgmann in Proceedings of the 5 th International Brandshutzseminar Conference, Karlsruhe, Germany, F.H. Prager and H. Zorgmann, Kunststoffe im Bau, 1979, 14, 2,

11 Building Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings 10. ISO 834-1, Fire Resistance Tests - Elements of Building Construction Part 1: General Requirements, DIN , Fire Behaviour of Building Materials and Building Components; Fire Walls and Non-Load-Bearing External Walls; Definitions, Requirements and Tests, W. Klöker, H. Niesel, F.H. Prager, H.W. Schiffer, O. Bökenkamp and H.G. Klingelhöfer, Kunststoffe, 1997, 67, 8, NEN 6065, Determination of the Contribution to Fire Propagation of Building Products, NEN 6066 Determination of the Smoke Production during Fire of Building Products, ASTM D2843, Test Method for Density of Smoke from the Burning or Decomposition of Plastics, M. Sommer, Kunststoffe Plast Europe, 2000, 90, 6, Plastics World, 1982, 40, Plastic News International, 2000, p AS , Methods for Fire Tests on Building Materials, Components and Structures - Test for Flammability of Materials, Plastics in Building Construction, 1997, 21, CAN/ULC S770, Standard Test Method for Determination of Long-Term Thermal Resistance of Closed-Cell Thermal Insulating Foams, S.N. Singh, M. Ntiru and K. Dedecker, Rubber and Plastics News, 2003, 32, 18, W.H. Julius in Proceedings of the SPI Composites Institute - 45 th Annual Conference, Washington, DC, USA, 1990, Paper No.2-D. 24. ASTM E84, Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials, DIN 22118, Conveyor Belts with Textile Plies for use in Coal Mining - Fire Testing,

12 Characteristics and Analysis of Non-Flammable Polymers 26. J. Wachowicz, Fire and Materials, 1998, 22, 5, J. Wachowicz in Proceedings of the 2 nd International Conference on Conveyor Belt Transportation in Mining, Ustroń, Poland, J. Wachowicz and B. Matecki in Scientific Works of Institute of Mining and Engineering, Technical University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland, 1992, 68, B. Matecki and J. Wachowicz in Problems Involved in the Application of the Drum Friction Test for Evaluating Fire Resistant Rubber Conveyor Belts in the Mining Industry, Przegląd Gόrniczy, Poland, 1992, 10, J. Wachowicz in Proceedings of the Flame Retardants 96 Conference, London, UK, 1996, p C. Huggett, Fire and Materials, 1980, 4, 2, J. Wachowicz, Fire and Materials, 1997, 21, 6, PN 93/C-05013, Slow-Burning Conveyor Belts - Methods of Testing of Slow- Burning, ISO , Reaction-to-Fire Tests Heat Release, Smoke Production and Mass Loss Rate - Part 1: Heat Release Rate (Cone Calorimeter Method), ASTM E1354, Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter, S.E. Chandler, The Incidence of Residential Fires in London The Effects of Housing and Other Social Factors, BRE Information Paper, IP 20/79, BRE, Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, UK, S.E. Chandler in Some Trends in Furniture Fires in Domestic Premises, BRE- CP 66/76 BRE, Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, UK, S.E. Chandler and R. Baldwin, Fire and Materials, 1976, 1, BS 5852, Methods of Test for Assessment of the Ignitability of Upholstered Seating by Smouldering and Flaming Ignition Sources, W.G. Berl and B.M. Halpin, Fire Journal, 1979,

13 Building Construction Materials, Industrial Applications and Furnishings 41. K.N. Palmer, W. Taylor and K.T. Paul in Fire Hazards of Plastics in Furniture and Furnishings: Characteristics of the Burning, BRE-CP 3/75, HMSO, London, UK, K.N Palmer, W. Taylor and K.T. Paul in Fire Hazards of Plastics in Furniture and Furnishings: Fully Furnished Rooms, BRE-CP 21/76, HSMO, London, UK, W.J. Wilson in Proceedings of the SPI 4 th Annual Combustion Symposium, London, UK, 1975, p F.H. Prager in Proceedings of the 5 th International Conference Brandshutzseminar, Karlsruhe, Germany, R.P. Marchant in The Ignitability of Upholstery by Smokers Materials, FIRA, Stevenage, UK, Requirements, Test Procedure and Apparatus for Testing the Flame Retardance of Upholstered Furniture, State of California Technical Information Bulletin 116, State of California, Department of Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulations, North Highlands, CA, USA, Requirements, Test Procedure and Apparatus for Testing the Flame Retardance of Resilient Filling Materials Used in Upholstered Furniture, State of California Technical Information Bulletin 117, State of California, Department of Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulations, North Highlands, CA, USA, DOE/PSA, Fire Retardant Specifications No.551, Department of the Environment, London, UK. 49. G.E. Squires in Proceedings of the Flame Retardants 96 Conference, London, UK, 1996, p Specifications Governing the Flammability of Upholstery Material and Plastic Furniture, The New York Authority, NY, USA, A.C. Handermann in Proceedings of the Alliance for the Polyurethanes Industry - Polyurethanes EXPO 2003 Conference, Orlando, FL, USA, 2003, p A.C. Handermann, Journal of Industrial Textiles, 2004, 33, 3,

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