Generation, Assessment

Transcription

1 Practical Guide to Smoke and Combustion Products from Burning Polymers - Generation, Assessment and Control Sergei Levchik Marcelo Hirschler Edward Weil Smithers ismithers /Smithers - A Smithers Group Company Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, United Kingdom Telephone: +44 (0) Fax: +44 (0)

2 C~ Preface vii 1. Smoke Obscuration/Opacity: Generation of Smoke from Polymeric Materials Introduction Parameters of Smoke Obscuration Maximum Specific Optical Density of Smoke Smoke Developed Index Average Specific Extinction Area Rate of Smoke Release Total Smoke Released Smoke Factor Visible Smoke (Soot) Formation Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chemical Structure of Polymers in Relation to Smoke Effects of Metals on Soot Formation Effects of Flame Retardants 12 References Generation of Combustion Products from Polymeric Materials (Smoke Toxicity) Introduction Common Smoke Toxicants Calculation of Smoke Toxicity in Small Fires Asphyxiants, Carbon Monoxide Hydrogen Cyanide 23 i

3 Practical Guide to Smoke and Combustion Products from Burning Polymers 2.5 Irritants Organic Irritants, Acrolein Inorganic Irritants Overview of Smoke Toxicants - Is There Evidence for 'Supertoxic' Components? Oxygen Depletion Effect of Flame Retardants on Smoke Toxicity Halogen Flame Retardants Phosphorus Flame Retardants Miscellaneous Flame Retardants Autopsies of Fire Victims and Real-fire Monitoring Post Flashover Fires, Mass-loss Model Meaning of Smoke Toxicity Tests Long-term Effects of Smoke Toxicity Conclusions 40 References Smoke Corrosivity Introduction Corrosivity of Construction Materials Smoke Corrosivity of Electrical and Electronic Equipment Measurements of Smoke Corrosivity 54 References Transport and Decay of Combustion Products Introduction Early Small-Scale Experiments Large-Scale Experiments Room-plenum Scenario Room-corridor Scenario Room-corridor-room Scenario Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Scenario Later Small-scale Experiments 75 ii

4 Contents 4.5 Modelling Model Description Assessment of the Hydrogen Chloride Decay Model in Hazard I Update on Modelling Other Gases Conclusions Appendix Mathematical Formulation 85 References 89 5 Fire Tests to Assess Smoke and Combustion-Product Generation Introduction Static Small-scale Obscuration Tests on Materials Dynamic Small-scale Smoke Obscuration Tests on Materials Traditional Full-scale Smoke Obscuration Tests on Products Full-scale Tests Measuring Heat Release and Smoke Release Specialised Full-scale Tests Measuring Heat and Smoke Release on Specific Products Small-scale Tests Measuring Heat and Smoke Release Smoke Toxicity Tests Smoke Corrosivity Tests 116 References Methods for Reducing Visible Smoke in Specific Polymer Systems General Comments Smoke and Decomposition/Combustion Products from Polyvinyl Chloride Antimony Oxide and Related Products: Effect on Smoke in Halogen-containing Polymers The Effect of Chlorinated Paraffins and Related Chlorine Additives on Smoke Use of Alumina Trihydrate for Reducing Smoke in Polyvinyl Chloride 129 iii

5 Practical Guide to Smoke and Combustion Products from Burning Polymers Magnesium Hydroxide and other Magnesium Compounds for Reducing Smoke in Polyvinyl Chloride V Molybdenum Compounds in Polyvinyl Chloride Copper Compounds as Smoke Suppressants in Polyvinyl Chloride Borates as Smoke Suppressants in Polyvinyl Chloride Zinc Stannates as Smoke Suppressants in Polyvinyl Chloride Zinc Sulfide as a Smoke Suppressant in Polyvinyl Chloride Calcium Carbonate as a Smoke Suppressant in Polyvinyl Chloride Low Flammability Plasticisers: Phosphate Esters and their Smoke Effects Low Temperature Lower-smoke Alkyl Diphenyl Phosphate Plasticisers Smoke Considerations in Calendered Vinyls Smoke Considerations in Plenum Wire and Cable Coated Textile Applications Vinyl Flooring Polyvinyl Chloride from a Safety and Environmental Point of View - the Role of Smoke The Smoke Problem with Styrenics Smoke Considerations with Textiles Smoke Considerations with Polyurethanes Smoke Considerations with Polycarbonates Smoke Considerations in Thermoplastic Polyesters Smoke Considerations in Polyamides 6.9 Smoke Considerations in Polyolefins 6.10 Aluminum Trihydrates and Magnesium Hydroxides Low Smoke Formulations 6.11 Smoke Considerations in Unsaturated Polyester Resins in Elastomers: Low Smoke Polyester Resins by Replacement of Styrene Low Smoke Unsaturated Acrylate Oligourethane Resins with Alumina Trihydrate Char-forming Low-smoke Additive for Unsaturated Polyester Resin Systems

6 Contents 6.12 Inherently Low Smoke Phenolic Resins Low Smoke Epoxy Resins 155 References Regulations, Codes and Standards Associated with Smoke Background: Regulations, Codes and Standards Regulations How Regulation for Fire Safety Works in the United States Federal Regulations State Regulations Local Regulations Regulations of Specific Items Aircraft Ships Trains and Underground Rail Vehicles Motor Vehicles Buses and School Buses Mine Conveyor Belts Carpets Comparison with International Regulations Codes International Code Council Codes International Building Codes International Fire Codes International Residential Codes International Mechanical Codes International Existing Building Codes Other International Code Council Codes National Fire Protection Association Codes and Standards National Electrical Codes National Life Safety Code Uniform Fire Code National Fire Protection Association Building Code 205 v

7 Practical Guide to Smoke and Combustion Products from Burning Polymers Buildings of Historic or Cultural Interest Manufactured Housing Air-Conditioning Standard Other National Fire Protection Association Codes and Standards International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials Codes Uniform Mechanical Code Standards Organisations and Committees Issuing Fire Standards or Standards with Fire Tests Standard Test Methods for Smoke Obscuration Standard Test Methods Associated with Smoke Toxicity Conclusions 211 References Fire Hazard and Smoke Generation 221 References 225 Abbreviations 227 vi