Invercargill. Wetlands. Southland. A Guide for Maintaining and Enhancing t h e Va l u e s o f o u r We t la n d A r eas

Transcription

1 Go re Invercargill c i t y c o u n c i l C I T Y O F WAT E R A N D L I G H T Inve rcargi Wetlands Of Southland ll A Guide for Maintaining and Enhancing t h e Va l u e s o f o u r We t la n d A r eas Southland New Z e a l an d

2 Wetlands are one of the most valuable ecosystems on earth - truly amazing biological resources which are essential to the functioning of our world. They are also one of the most vulnerable ecosystems in the world. This booklet introduces you to wetlands, describes the many threats that they face and provides information on how to nurture the wetlands in your area. Southland has many significant wetland areas, some of which are internationally important. We hope to foster a greater understanding and an appreciation for our wetland areas so that they will continue to be part of the landscape for future generations. Tim Shadbolt Mayor, Invercargill City Council Frana Cardno Mayor, Southland District Council Ted Loose Chairman, Environment Southland Owen O Connor Mayor, Gore District Council Within the Invercargill City District Guidelines are available for: Otatara - Sandy Point Bushcare Forest Remnants Coast care page 1

3 contents Introduction 3 What is a wetland? 3 1.Why Are Wetlands So Important? 4 Wetlands are cradles of biodiversity 4 Wetlands are habitats 4 Wetlands are natural supermarkets 4 Wetlands are part of the hydrological cycle 4 Wetlands are filters 4 Wetlands are carbon sinks 4 Wetlands are buffers 4 Wetlands are a cultural heritage 5 Wetlands are a recreational resource 5 Wetlands provide research opportunities 5 Wetlands are economically important 5 2.Important Wetlands 6 Coastal wetlands 7 Swamps 7 Peatlands 8 Alpine wetlands 9 Wetland sequences 9 Wetland restoration and creation 10 3.Threats to our Wetlands 12 Conversions through drainage, reclamation, filling and clearance 12 Rubbish dumping 12 Harvesting of sphagnum moss 12 Fire 12 Tourism and intensive recreational use 12 Modification of natural hydrological characteristics 12 Agricultural, industrial, and domestic effluent and runoff, drift from top dressing and accidental spillages of toxic substances 13 Livestock grazing and trampling 13 Introduced plants and animals 13 An acceleration in sea level rise 13 Consequences of wetland loss 13 4.Good Land Use Practices 14 Fence off vulnerable areas from stock or restrict entry of stock 14 Avoid the creation of drainage ditches or impenetrable barriers in wetland areas 14 Provide a buffer around the wetland 14 Consider how your landuse activities may impact on a nearby wetland 14 Control plant and animal pests 15 Enhance a wetland 15 Avoid conflict between recreation/tourism and wetland conservation 15 Learn how to identify wetland plants 16 Become iinvolved in a landcare group 16 Legally protect your wetland area 16 5.Wetland Plants 17 Estuarine plants 17 Swamp plants 19 Peatland plants 21 Alpine plants 23 Pest plants in wetlands 25 Important Contacts 28 Further Reading 28 Glossary 29 Acknowledgments 29 Index to Plants 30 page 2

4 introduction This booklet is about the wetlands within the Southland region. It is presented in five parts. This section introduces you to what wetlands are and their importance as part of the natural environment. Section 1 describes the importance of wetlands. Section 2 describes the varied wetlands of Southland. Section 3 discusses threats to wetlands. Section 4 provides tips on how to care for wetland areas. Section 5 describes and illustrates some of the key plants that grow there, both native and introduced. What is a Wetland? A wetland is a place where the ground is permanently or periodically wet and which supports a natural ecosystem of plants and animals that are adapted to wet conditions. Wetlands occur from the coast to the mountains. Some wetlands are shallow pools or estuaries, where there is enough light penetration for underwater plants to grow. Others may look outwardly dry, with a reservoir of water just beneath the surface. Wetlands occur in a wide variety of habitat types including coastal lagoons and estuaries; flood plains and valley floors (rivers and lakes); and alpine areas. There are also created wetlands such as farm ponds, wastewater ponds, gravel pits and stock water reservoirs. Wetland types also differ according to local conditions such as topography, soil, fertility and whether they are salt or freshwater. Wetlands are dynamic ecosystems which undergo constant change naturally - they are very sensitive to changes in climate, water availability, disturbance and land use. They can be either permanently or seasonally wet. Wetlands in Southland are widespread and diverse, supporting distinctive communities which contribute to the unique biological and geographic character of the region. In the not too distant past, wetlands were unfairly and inaccurately portrayed as wastelands. Over 90% of New Zealand s wetlands have been drained in the last 200 years to make way for industry, agriculture and urban development. This is one of the largest wetland losses anywhere in the world. Wetlands now occupy only about 2% of the total land area of New Zealand. In Southland, it is estimated that intact wetlands have been reduced by 37% since European settlement. This percentage would however be significantly higher if it weren t for the numerous untouched wetlands in Fiordland and Rakiura (Stewart Island) National Parks. Today, wetlands continue to be threatened. However, they still have a vitally important role to play in maintaining a healthy and functioning environment. page 3

5 why are wetlands so important? Wetlands are cradles of biodiversity There is a great diversity of wetland types and communities. Each has its own distinct character. Wetlands also contain one of the greatest diversities of wildlife and have the highest proportion of endangered species of any terrestrial habitat on earth. They are also important genetic reservoirs for certain species of plants. Biodiversity is essential to the healthy functioning of the environment. Wetlands are habitats Large numbers of New Zealand s native fauna, including some that are in danger of extinction, depend on wetlands as their habitat. Of all the natural habitats in New Zealand, wetlands support the greatest concentration of bird species. Wading birds feed on the rich invertebrate fauna and juvenile fish species and roost near the high tide mark of coastal wetlands. Waterfowl such as ducks, swans and geese dabble in ponds and feed on aquatic plants or sieve through sediments for seed and invertebrates. Wetlands also harbour a large proportion of our native flora. Wetlands are natural supermarkets Coastal wetlands are vital for at least part of the life cycle of more than 30 species of the fish we eat, including whitebait, sole, flounder and eels. Estuaries also support shellfish beds. Coastal wetlands have higher rates of productivity than any other New Zealand habitat (including irrigated crop production land). Wetlands are part of the hydrological cycle Wetlands retain and release water in a controlled fashion. Wetlands soak up floodwater, diminishing the effects of floods downstream. Wetlands lessen the severity of drought conditions on adjacent land. Wetlands are important for groundwater recharge and discharge. Wetlands are filters Wetlands filter out toxins and wastes from water, acting like human kidneys. Agrichemicals tend to adhere to sediments and wetland plants trap this sediment thus reducing water pollution. Wetlands also remove nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from water which helps to prevent eutrophication (build up of excess nutrients leading to algal blooms). Wetlands can be used in the final stages of sewage treatment. The nutrients stored by wetlands are released as temperatures cool and plants die down in winter, when eutrophication is less likely to occur. Wetlands are carbon sinks Wetlands, and especially peatlands, accumulate carbon and so are a carbon sink. Peatland areas are one of the greatest carbon sinks in the world. If they remain healthy they continue to accumulate, however if developed the peat decomposes, releasing carbon. Forest accumulates carbon while growing, only to release it when harvested or when trees die. Waihopai River Wetland Wetlands are buffers Wetlands act as buffers between open water and land, stopping excess nutrients or sediments getting into water and water damaging the land through erosion. Coastal wetlands have an important role in buffering land from the effects of sea level rise and the increased severity of storms likely to be page 4

6 associated with global warming. Coastal wetland vegetation reduces the energy of waves and stabilises eroding coastlines, helping to enhance coastal water quality. Roots of wetland plants hold sediment in place, preventing erosion of valuable residential or agricultural land and property damage. Wetlands are a cultural heritage Wetlands have a prominent place in the traditional and contemporary society of local maori (Ngai Tahu Whanui). Wetlands are often venues for the preservation and teaching of traditional matauranga (knowledge). Wetlands are important threads in the history of Ngai Tahu Whanui. Many important events took place at or near wetlands. Wetlands are traditional places for Maori food gathering (mahinga kai). For example, Tuna (eel); Kanakana (lamprey); Mata (whitebait); Kokopu (native trout); Whio (blue duck); Patiki (flounder); Koradi (flax flower) and Ti kouka (cabbage tree). Maori also use wetland plants such as Harakeke (flax), Toitoi and Raupo (bullrush) for a variety of purposes including clothing; Kete (baskets); Uare (houses) and Mokihi (rafts). Some kinds of wetland mud are also used to dye clothing such as Piupiu. Place names around Southland also provide historical information about wetlands. For example, Waituna (waters of eel); Waikakahi (waters of the fresh water mussel); Waiharakeke (flax waters); Tussock Creek; Boggy Burn and Flaxy Creek. Wetlands are a recreational resource Wetlands are important recreational areas, enjoyed by many naturalists, fishermen, whitebaiters, waterfowl hunters and those engaged in other water sports. They are also growing in importance as tourist attractions because of their scenic qualities and abundant wildlife. Wetlands provide research opportunities Wetlands show what large parts of Southland and New Zealand used to be like. Wetlands are excellent examples of the functioning of ecosystems and are valuable for the study of biology. Within the soils, vegetation fragments can trace the vegetation and hence climates of the area. Wetland sediments contain pollen and accumulated plant material, layed down in sequence. Studying and dating this material can show what grew at and around the site in the past, providing a vegetation history. Wetlands are economically important, for: Water supply (quantity and quality) Erosion control Fisheries Agriculture (maintenance of water tables and nutrient reduction in floodplains) Energy resources (peat and plant matter) Wildlife resources Recreation and tourism opportunities. Dracophyllum Manuka Wirerush page 5

7 important wetlands Did you know that Southland contains one of the first places in the world to have a wetland officially recognised under the Ramsar convention, when the Waituna Wetland was registered in 1976? The Ramsar designation recognises the importance of this particular wetland internationally. The following pages describe Southland s many wetlands, grouped into the main types - coastal, peatlands, swamps and alpine. Wetlands are however very complex systems and often a single wetland type will be found in association with another type. Wetland restoration and creation also takes place around the region and some of the projects are discussed. Waimatua Creek Bush Siding Kapuka South Awarua Plains Waituna Creek Currans Creek Muddy Creek Waituna Lagoon Awarua Bay Toetoes Bay What is the Ramsar Convention? The Ramsar Convention, formally known as the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, was signed in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran. It is an intergovernmental treaty promoting the protection and wise management of wetlands and their resources. New Zealand became a party to the convention in 1976 and each year on 2 February we join the rest of the world in celebrating World Wetlands Day to mark the anniversary of the signing of the convention. page 6

8 Coastal Wetlands New River Estuary, Awarua Bay, Waikawa Harbour, Jacobs River, Toetoes Harbour, the Waiau River mouth and Waituna Lagoon, are some of the many estuarine and lagoon areas of Southland. These coastal areas support a diversity of wetland communities. Some coastal wetlands are also known as salt marshes because of their saline influence. Salt marshes form around estuaries or lagoons where they experience regular inundation by sea water. They exhibit a tidal zonation where plants with the most salt tolerance grow in the zone with the most tidal inundation and less salt tolerant plants grow where they are only occasionally reached by salt water or spray. At the lowest zones, the plant community comprises eel grass beds. The next level includes succulents (plants adapted to high salt levels in the environment) such as glassworts. The mid zones contain a salt meadow community. Most salt marshes include an upper zone of tall sedges, rushes and some shrubs which have their bases submerged when the tide is in. Where there is farmland next to a coastal wetland, a wet pasture community of salt-tolerant grasses may form between dry pasture and the wetland. Good examples of intact coastal sequences can be seen at Haldane Estuary, Daffodil Bay, the Bushy Point Educational Boardwalk on Grant Road at Otatara, and at the head of Waikawa Estuary. Swamps Swamps range from areas of open freshwater such as lake and riverine edges to wet pasture, pond margins and backwashes. Swamps are associated with fertile land and exist on valley floors with water running through them from upstream sources. As a result, swamps have been more extensively modified by land development than any other wetland type. Salt marsh species are not limited to estuaries. They can also be found on headlands above the sea because of wave splash and sea spray. These are called coastal turfs. Mini-wetlands may also form in the hollows between sand dunes, known as dune slacks. Dune slacks, such as those at Oreti Beach in Invercargill, Waipapa Beach and Masons Bay, Stewart Island are formed where the wind has eroded sand down to the level of the water table. The plant communities that grow there may include creeping plants or solid turf and patches of rushes or sedges. Redcliff Wetland Valley floor between the Mavora Lakes Valley floors with swampy areas, such as those between the Mavora Lakes, were once common throughout Southland. Small patches can still be found on farmland. The types of plants that grow in swamps include purei and other sedges, flax, manuka, red tussock, toetoe and cabbage trees. Redcliff Reserve below Manapouri, is an extensive area of shallow water with swampy vegetation. In 1977, Fish and Game New Zealand developed this area for the benefit of wildlife. The wetland is protected by an open space covenant under the Queen Elizabeth II Trust. The wetland Masons Bay, Rakiura (Stewart Island) page 7

9 provides an open water area of approximately 50 ha and is home to a great range of waterfowl and other wetland species. It also has the highest number of longfinned eels of any waters in the lower Waiau catchment. The gravel pit ponds near Oreti beach, north of Dunns Road, are an example of where lowland wetland swamps have been artificially created through disturbance. It is an important area for waterfowl such as mallard duck, grey duck, Australasian bittern, little shag and pied stilt during breeding. Kakapo Swamp in the Te Anau Basin and Lake Brunton south of Tokanui are wetlands that contain flax swamps. Areas like these once provided for a major flax fibre mill industry. Today flax swamps are rare in Southland Peatlands differ from freshwater swamps - the soil is peat, has low fertility, is more or less permanently saturated with water and is anaerobic. As a result they lack the organisms that decompose organic matter. Consequently, peatlands are expensive to develop and have survived as the dominant wetland type in Southland. In locations where drainage is impeded or the groundwater level is high, peat can accumulate above the surrounding ground surface, eventually forming a gently curving dome. This feature is referred to as a raised peatbog. Many raised peatbogs are scattered across the Southland Plains, the Taringatura Hills, and the Te Anau Basin. Swamp forest of kahikatea was once widespread on the flood plains of Southland and are now all but gone. Important remnants still exist at Thomsons Bush along the Waihopai River, Invercargill and Turnbull Bush, Tussock Creek. Peatlands Some of the largest and most important wetlands are the nationally and internationally important areas of peat bogs or peatlands. The extensive peatland/wetland complex of the Awarua Plains including Seaward Moss, Waituna Lagoon (a wetland of international importance), Toetoes Harbour and Awarua Bay is rated as nationally important. Waituna peatland is one of the most significant waterfowl habitats in New Zealand, being home to fernbirds and the Australasian bittern, as well as other native animals including skinks, the giant kokopu (Galaxias species) and a range of moths, grasshoppers and beetles. Raised peatbog The Dunearn peatbog in Western Southland is an excellent example of a raised peatbog. The area has recently been acquired by the Department of Conservation from a private owner, through the Nature Heritage Fund, with assistance from the Southland District Council. Restoration is planned at the site as the area has been significantly modified through drainage. Peatlands have a range of communities, including manuka shrublands, wirerush-tangle, fern-swamp inaka-manuka, red tussock-flaxland, rushland, sphagnum hollow and pools. The most extensive of these communities is the wirerush-tangle. Fernbird at Waituna Wetlands page 8

10 Alpine Wetlands Alpine wetlands exist in mountain environments with high rainfall, cloud cover and colder temperatures. They are frequently found in snow tussock landscapes and have a high diversity of plants and animals. Vegetation commonly comprises short plant communities with cushion forming plants, sedges, sphagnum and herbs (for example, sedges, buttercups and mountain daisies). Alpine wetlands are relatively unaffected by human impacts in comparison with their lowland counterparts. As a result, they function naturally and often have a direct influence on maintaining water flows in the headwaters of river catchments. The Garvie Mountains in Northern Southland support significant alpine wetlands. The area contains extensive tussocklands dominated by snow tussock. These are mixed with herbfields, cushion bogs, sedgeland-mossfields, sometimes with patterned pond systems, or adjacent to lakes or tarns. Fiordland and Rakiura (Stewart Island) National Parks frequently support unaltered alpine herbfields, cushionfields and other wetlands in areas above metres. An excellent opportunity to view various tarns and diverse alpine wetland plant communities is provided on a track from the Borland Saddle car park (the summit of Borland Road), through the bush, to the top of Mt Burns. Southland is unique through the presence of typically alpine or subalpine wetland plants in lowland areas. Subalpine wetland species found in the Waituna area include cushion bog, sky lily, comb sedge, sundews, gentians and several other species. Cushion bog (Donatia novae-zelandiae) at Waituna Wetland Sequences In their natural state, wetlands are part of an ecological sequence of native vegetation, which includes grasslands, shrublands, and forests. There are several examples of remnant wetland sequences in the Southland region. The Awarua Plains/Seaward Moss area contains a diverse range of wetland communities and sequences including estuary mud-flats, salt marshes, peatlands, shallow pools, tarns and seepages, wire rushlands and manuka shrublands. Tiwai Peninsula is characterised by red tussock grassland and flaxlands. On the eastern end of the peninsula, the tussock grassland grades into a wetland-peatland closely connected to the Ramsar Waituna Wetland, with plants such as wirerush, jointed rush, mingimingi, flax, toetoe, manuka, cabbage trees, willowherbs and water milfoil. Jointed Rush and Totara Borland Saddle, Mt Burns Southland also supports sequences from alpine tops to rockfields, snowbanks, tussocklands with wetlands into forest. An example of this type of sequence is found in the Garvie Mountains. page 9

11 Sequences from swamp and peatland areas to shrublands then forest are also present at Toetoes Swamp, Freshwater Valley in Stewart Island and in areas of Fiordland (for example, Amoeboid Swamp). Wetland Sequence at Bushy Point The only place in Southland where the intact zonation from estuary to forest still exists, and can be viewed easily, is at Bushy Point. Here the zonation passes from coastal wetland dominated by jointed rush, through shrubland of manuka or mingimingi and marsh ribbonwood, gradually merging with podocarp forest containing kahikatea, matai, totara, and rimu. A feature of this area is the ease with which elusive fernbirds can be seen and heard. It has been proposed that the Bushy Point wetland be included in the Ramsar designation of the Waituna wetland and the New River Estuary. Some of the sequences mentioned are considered to be of regional if not national importance. Intact and diverse sequences are now uncommon in lowland New Zealand. Wetland Restoration and Creation Environment Southland, Invercargill City Council, Southland District Council, Gore District Council, Department of Conservation, Fish and Game New Zealand and other agencies and community groups are all involved in wetland enhancement, restoration and creation in Southland. Wetlands can be created or modified using weirs, embankments or dams. They are generally smaller in size than their natural counterparts, with fixed water levels. Some less obvious examples of wetland creation around Southland include duck ponds, stock water reservoirs, forestry fire ponds, and waste water treatment ponds. Planting a variety of species can enhance wetland environments and encourage insects and birds from other wetlands. The Southland Community Nursery at Otatara, Environment Southland and Fish and Game New Zealand can provide advice on suitable plants when creating or restoring wetlands. As well as enhancing landscape values, created and restored wetlands provide habitat for waterfowl, game birds, native birds and plants. They also assist with maintaining good water quality and help safeguard water levels in ground and/or surface water during dry summers. Specific examples of restoration projects and created wetlands in the region include: New River Estuary - Former Refuse Disposal Site The Invercargill City Council is working on enhancing the old Refuse Disposal Site at the New River Estuary by landscaping and planting it out with native plants. Wetlands Restoration at New River Estuary Waihopai Dam Wetland The construction of the Waihopai Detention Dam east of Racecourse Road provided the opportunity to create a wetland environment. Environment Southland and school groups have been involved in planting the edges of the pond created by the dam with swamp plants such as flax, tussock, toetoe and cabbage trees. The area is fenced off from stock and attracts waterfowl as well as sustaining fish and eels. page 10

12 Riversdale Wastewater Treatment System The Southland District Council has carried out planting and wetland creation in conjunction with the Riversdale Wastewater Treatment System. The wetland has been designed to improve effluent quality while also providing a wetland habitat. Using Gravel Extraction to Restore Oxbow Lakes Degraded or lost river wetland habitats on riverbeds are being restored in Southland through gravel extraction. Environment Southland provides advice on extraction of gravel to restore wetland habitats such as degraded or destroyed oxbow lakes. The lakes are restored through extracting gravel at a range of depths and edge forms. This provides productive deep and shallow wetland habitats. Waiau Fisheries and Wildlife Enhancement Trust The objectives of the Trust are the protection, creation, restoration and enhancement of fisheries and wildlife habitats in the Waiau Catchment. This includes protection of existing wetlands through fencing subsidies, agreements, and creation of new wetlands. The largest project to date is Rakatu Wetland. The development will result in the creation of a 45 ha open water wetland amongst 60 ha of existing wetlands on land that is currently developed pasture. The Rakatu development adjoins the existing Redcliff Wetland. Te Koawa - Turoa - o Takitimu (Jericho Block), Redcliff Valley Te Waiau Mahika Kai Trust is an independent Trust promoting and enhancing the relationship of Ngai Tahu people with the mahinga kai resources of the Waiau catchment. The Trust promotes wetland habitat development using traditional techniques to encourage the return of indigenous wildlife species. Wetland restoration projects at the site include creation of two ponds in an existing diversion channel, widespread removal of weeds and planting of native plants. Restored Oxbow adjacent to the Oreti River Duck Pond Creation Fish and Game New Zealand provides free surveying and advice to those interested in pond creation and management. Fish and Game Council has surveyed over 1,000 wetland developments in Southland. Most Southlanders who visit and interact with wetlands do so while hunting for waterfowl on private land. Despite being relatively small and developed to provide habitat for waterfowl, these wetlands provide important habitats for a great range of other wetland species while also ensuring wetlands are present where they otherwise might not be. Duck Pond page 11

13 threats to our wetlands This section describes the threats to our remaining wetlands and how to care for them in the future. The traditional view of wetlands as wastelands is changing, as we better understand how they contribute to our environment. However, wetlands in New Zealand continue to be threatened directly and indirectly by a number of factors including: Conversion through drainage, reclamation, filling and clearance for: Agriculture, horticulture or forestry Industrial and residential development Solid waste disposal Roads Channelised water courses These activities may smother the wetland through increased amounts of sediments, lower water quality or quantity, and may ultimately destroy the wetland. Rubbish dumping Destroys scenic values and can endanger the wildlife present. Potential for leaching of pollutants from rubbish to contaminate wetland and water. Harvesting of sphagnum moss Uncontrolled harvesting of sphagnum moss, while providing income, removes an important component of the wetland and leads to its degradation. Fire During dry weather, wetland vegetation and peat are flammable and can burn for a long time. Peatland fires are very hard to put out. Tourism and intensive recreational use Walking and driving in wetland environments can place pressure on the ecological system which attracts people there in the first place. Alpine systems are particulary slow to recover from damage. Modification of natural hydrological characteristics, through Construction of sea walls and stopbanks Damming and diversion of water courses Groundwater abstraction Irrigation schemes Fragmentation by roads, 4WD tracks Drainage ditches Vehicle Damage at Sandy Point page 12

14 Agricultural, industrial and domestic effluent and runoff, drift from top dressing and accidental spillages of toxic substances Although wetland plants can trap pollutants, once levels get too high for them to cope algal blooms occur, shellfish become contaminated (coastal wetlands), vegetation can become dominated by weeds and wildlife may die. The death of wetland plants from pollution can lead to erosion as soils are no longer held together by the plants. Livestock grazing and trampling Deer, goats, sheep and cattle can all damage wetland plants and the stability of the wetland, degrading and causing loss of habitat. They destroy bird breeding and roosting sites and fish spawning areas, and lead to erosion and sedimentation. Introduced plants and animals Often out-compete native plants and modify wetland habitats so they are no longer suitable for species that rely on them. For instance, the introduced plant Spartina both out-competes native coastal wetland plants and builds up the level of tidal flats, driving native species out. It also colonises more or less bare mud flats and reduces the area available for wading birds to forage in. Consequences of Wetland loss Decline or extinction of wetland plants and animals and decrease in biodiversity Decline in catches of commercial fish species dependent on wetlands for life-cycle (for example: whitebait, flounder) Change in water regime - increased destructiveness of droughts and floods Degradation of water quality Loss of free services - (for example, water purification, flood control) Loss of cultural heritage and customary rights Loss of recreational and tourism opportunities Without collective responsibility for our wetlands, many may soon be lost forever. While it is now the poor, developing countries that are losing wetlands at the fastest rate, it is countries like New Zealand which have the resources and expertise to take the lead in wetland conservation. An acceleration in sea level rise Under predicted sea level rise, wetlands will slowly drown unless they can retreat inland, keeping pace with the rate of sea level rise. Ironically, the destruction of wetlands and other indigenous ecosystems releases vast amounts of carbon dioxide, one of the greenhouse gases responsible for global warming. Yet another reason to help save our wetlands. page 13

15 good land use practices The future of wetlands depends on careful management of these resources. Today, lowland and coastal wetlands that have not been modified are rare. However, even those wetlands that are modified are a significant social, economic and ecological resource. While the list of threats looks enormous, there are many things that we can do to improve the health of our wetlands. It is important to remember that wetlands are part of an interlocking chain of ecosystems, affected by everyday land use practices in surrounding areas. Provide a buffer around the wetland To help the wetland, leave a buffer between productive land and the wetland, avoid drains within the wetland itself, avoid over-draining in the summer and do not divert streams feeding the wetland. There are a number of good land management practices that protect the integrity of wetlands including: Fence off vulnerable areas from stock or restrict entry of stock It is amazing what an improvement fencing out cattle makes to a wetland environment. Once cattle are no longer wandering through a wetland, wetland plants may once again grow, and there will be associated improvements in water quality, stability of wetland edges and sediment retention. Occasional or restricted entry of sheep to wetland areas may be beneficial in terms of keeping the growth of pasture grasses under control. Money to assist landowners with the cost of fencing may be available from the Invercargill City Council and Environment Southland. National land protection agencies such as the Nature Heritage Fund or the Queen Elizabeth II Trust may also have funding. Avoid the creation of drainage ditches or impenetrable barriers in wetland areas Drainage ditches running through or around wetlands significantly alter water flow patterns, leading to degradation of the wetland. Changes in water circulation in a catchment surrounding a wetland disrupt the ecosystem - a reduction of fresh water reaching a wetland can increase salinity causing some plant species to die, or it can eliminate the wetland as the land dries out. Roads and stopbanks without adequate culverts can cut off wetlands from water sources. Wetland with buffer zone Consider how your landuse activities may impact on a nearby wetland Most of us do not set out to damage wetlands. Unfortunately, because wetlands are so highly sensitive to the land uses surrounding them as well as what is going on within them, our everyday activities can impact on them. There are, however, many things you can do to help. For instance: If you need to spray weeds on your property, try not to spray close to a wetland or on a windy day where spray could drift; instead remove weeds by hand or mechanically from around a wetland to avoid contamination of the water. To avoid excess nutrients finding their way into the wetland, ensure that any discharges from domestic or agricultural land uses to soil (including fertiliser application) take place well away from the wetland edge. Avoid burn-offs in areas close to wetlands, especially during drier times of the year, as they might spread into the wetland. Avoid planting of certain exotic plant species (such as forestry trees, willows, silver birch, rowan, holly etc) nearby as they can easily spread and modify the wetland. page 14

16 Block any drains within or adjacent to the wetland that are not required. When undertaking mechanical drain maintenance or clearance do so outside of the wetland - also make sure that the machinery is clean so that it does not bring in weed seeds and try to prevent the movement of weed seed. Biological control: currently being looked at for oxygen weed - Spartina is controlled this way overseas. Chemical control: for particularly persistent weeds - in these cases particular care must be taken because of the danger of contaminating wetland system and water. Ask for advice from Environment Southland, the Department of Conservation or a garden centre. Flax at Sandy Point Ponds Control plant and animal pests For animals, pest specific bait stations can be set up and there are various traps available. Contact Environment Southland for advice. For plants, only undertake control if you are sure of the identity of the weed and report any new weeds you see spreading quickly to the Department of Conservation or Environment Southland. No one method for control works with all pest plants and in all conditions which is why it is a good idea to use a number of different methods in combination. The options available, individually or together, include: Mechanical clearance: - Some younger or smaller weeds can be pulled out of the ground by grabbing them at the base and making sure that the roots are pulled out cleanly - Lay matting down over weeds blocking waterways to suppress light - Woody weeds can be chopped down - often the cut base needs to have chemical applied to stop resprouting Enhance a Wetland Planting of native wetland species around the edge of a wetland will help to make it more healthy and also more attractive. You can also consider how the wetland ecosystem fits in with the rest of the environment. Wetlands are healthiest when they are connected to other natural ecosystems such as scrub and native forest. Ecological corridors provide shelter and encourage native animal species to move between different areas, increasing species richness. Gullies containing wetland areas can be planted out in species such as cabbage trees, flax, red tussock and toetoe. Coastal forest and scrub often naturally adjoin coastal wetlands and are important as buffers as well as providing shelter and food for wetland animals. Planting of riparian areas along stream sides will help maintain or improve the water quality and instream habitat. Creating ponds in wet areas creates habitat for waterfowl and provides amenity values. Ponds can be made by damming small watercourses or by digging, but a resource consent may be required. For advice contact Environment Southland or Fish and Game. Avoid conflict between recreation/tourism and wetland conservation The more a wetland is enhanced, the more attractive it becomes to visitors, with enhanced birdlife and wetland scenery. To ensure that this extra attention does not detract from a wetland s values, tracks in the wetlands should be carefully located to avoid sensitive areas and birds roosting. Boardwalks are an excellent way of viewing a wetland without trampling wetland plants and destroying the habitat of native birds. page 15

17 Learn how to identify wetland plants using the guide provided in this booklet as a start and notify the Department of Conservation of any sightings of rare or endangered plants or animals. Become involved in a landcare group and start a restoration scheme. There are many resources available to get you started (see further reading section) and you can get advice on wetland restoration programmes from the Department of Conservation, Environment Southland, Fish and Game or your local authority. Legally protect your wetland area Wetlands can be placed under legal protection to ensure that your wetland remains protected even if it changes ownership. Legal protection ensures that your conservation achievements will continue, usually in perpetuity. There are two main ways of protecting your land in the long term: 1. You can sell or gift the land to an organisation for protection purposes, or 2. You can enter into an agreement with Department of Conservation, the Queen Elizabeth II National Trust, or local authorities. A covenant means that you will retain ownership and the wetland will be managed according to an agreement between you (or a future landowner) and the covenanting agency. It also means that you can ask for funding for things like surveys, legal and fencing costs, or apply to the local authorities for rates relief. Other funding sources for protecting your wetland include the Nature Heritage fund, or for the owners of Maori land, Nga Whenua Rahui. For further advice, contact Department of Conservation, the Southland Branch of Fish and Game Council or Queen Elizabeth II National Trust. Kahikatea and Pond Creation page 16

18 Wetland Plants It takes a special type of plant to be able to withstand constant or intermittent waterlogging. This section describes some of the plants that are found in the wetlands of Southland. Estuarine Plants Also described in this section are plants, which have been identified as pests. If unchecked, pest populations can increase to the point where they cause major environmental damage. For further information on pest plants refer to Environment Southland s Regional Pest Management Strategy, May A hierarchy of designations has been developed in the Pest Management Strategy and these designations are referred to in this booklet. The designations are defined in the Glossary. Eelgrass/Nana (Zostera novaezelandica) Eelgrass/Nana (Zostera novaezelandica) Form: Grass-like swards Leaves: Grass-like, olive green Flowers: Tiny Found: In silty or tidal mud flats, estuaries, where it is submerged during high tide Glasswort/Ureure (Sarcornia quinque-flora) Form: Succulent herb with prostrate woody stems to 30 cm long, can form creeping mats Stems: Erect fleshy, jointed, cylindrical stems forming low clumps. Green, grey-green or reddish Flowers: Tiny, in groups Found: Salt marshes, submerged at each tide, coastal cliffs and banks Glasswort/Ureure (Sarcornia quinque-flora) Selliera/Remuremu (Selliera radicans) Form: Creeping herb forming extensive mats or carpets Leaves: Fleshy, glossy, alternate, variable size, narrowly to widely spoon shaped Flowers: Many lopsided, white, half flowers, scented Fruit: Fleshy Found: Salt marshes, turfy banks, dune hollows and lakeshores Selliera/Remuremu (Selliera radicans) page 17

19 Sea primrose (Samolus repens) Sea primrose (Samolus repens) Form: Creeping to sprawling herb, often forming large carpets Stems: Tough, dark and slender, sometimes with ascending or erect shoots Leaves: Slightly fleshy, spoon shaped, brown-green Flowers: White, star-like Found: Coastal turf, saltmarsh and rocky places in reach of saltspray Native celery/tutae koau (Apium prostratum) Native celery/tutae koau (Apium prostratum) Form: Resembles miniature garden celery Leaves: Bright green, glossy, much divided Flowers: Tiny, white, in clusters (umbels) Found: Upper salt marsh, damp sand, turf banks, gravels or cliffs Dwarf plantain (Plantago triandra) Dwarf plantain (Plantago triandra) Form: Small flattened, shiny, hard textured rosettes, usually in colonies Leaves: Thick, dark green, often with black blotches, brittle in exposed places Flowers: Tiny, borne deep within the leaves Found: Coastal slack and turf flushed grassland. Some distance inland in damp red tussock, grassland and grassy wheel ruts Knobby clubrush/wiiwii (Isolepis nodosa) Knobby clubrush/wiiwii (Isolepis nodosa) Form: Stiff rush-like clumps Stems: Tall, thin, shiny, wirelike, unjointed Flowers: Crowded, brown spikelets Fruit: Distinctive clusters of dark coloured seed heads Found: Grows in wet coastal areas but also dunes and headlands page 18

20 Saltmarsh ribbonwood, Makaka (Plagianthus divaricatus) Oioi/Jointed wirerush (Leptocarpus similis) Saltmarsh ribbonwood, Makaka (Plagianthus divaricatus) Form: Divaricating, densely tangled deciduous shrub to 2m tall Stems: Spindly, interlacing with small leaves Flowers: Small, cream, fragrant Fruit: Small, round, hairy Found: Along margins of salt marshes, dune hollows and coastal gravels Oioi/Jointed wirerush (Leptocarpus similis) Form: Dense, erect, wiry clumps up to 1.5m tall Stems: Wire-like, jointed, dull grey-green, orange and purple in parts Leaves: Dark bands around stem Flowers: Rush-like, in tight clusters (spikelets brown or grey) at or near the top of the stem Found: Bordering salt marshes and estuaries, tidal rivers, inland lakes, lowland swamps. Often found in large patches in the zone behind where glasswort grows Swamp Plants Purei/Makura (Carex secta) Purei/Makura (Carex secta) Form: Harsh, spreading tussocks on trunk-like bases, up to 1.5m tall Leaves: Thin (3-7mm), cutty, drooping Flowers: In spikes Found: Widespread in swamps and up to 900m Mingimingi (Coprosma propinqua) Mingimingi (Coprosma propinqua) Form: Dense bushy shrub reaching 3-5m tall but with large variations in size and form Stems: Grey Leaves: Dark green, shiny, varying in shape and size Fruit: Translucent, whitish, pale blue or with dark blue flecks Found: Swamps, bogs, dunes, lake and river margins, rocky spurs, coastal wetlands, forest margins and marble and limestone cliffs page 19

21 Toetoe (Cortaderia richardii) Toetoe (Cortaderia richardii) Form: Very robust tussock, coarse, one or more metres tall Leaves: Long, grasslike, green, rough to touch Flowers: Heads reach up to 2m tall, white and feathery Found: In swamps and slips, coastal banks, stream sides, river gravels, hillsides and sand dunes Red tussock (Chionochloa rubra) Red tussock (Chionochloa rubra) Form: 1-1.5m tall tussock Leaves: Long, rigid, rolled, red brown Flowers: Large spikelets Found: Wet hollows and poorly drained valley floors Flax/harakeke (Phormium tenax) Flax Flower Flax/harakeke (Phormium tenax) and Mountain flax/wharariki (Phormium cookianum) Form: Robust, fan-like clumps of leaves, 1-3m tall, mountain flax generally smaller than flax Leaves: Long, fibrous. Mountain flax more droopy Flowers: Stalk 3-5m tall, reddish or orange-yellow flowers, greenish in mountain flax Fruit: Dark seed capsule - twisted, hanging pod in mountain flax and erect straight pod in flax, both with glossy black seeds Found: Mountain flax is found amongst tussock and shrub in the mountains and on exposed coasts on Stewart Island and Fiordland. Lowland flax is found in damp and poorly drained land. Also commonly planted as a shelter plant Cabbage tree/ti kouka (Cordyline australis) Cabbage tree/ti kouka (Cordyline australis) Form: Small tree, 12-20m. Unbranched trunk in young tree and branching in the upper half of the older tree Bark: Grey, thick, corky and rough Leaves: Mass of long leaves (up to 1m) at the top of the tree Flower: Sweet scented, white, in heads Fruit: Whitish berries Found: Around the damp edges of lowland wetlands page 20

22 Tuffed hair grass (Deschampsia cespitosa) Tuffed hair grass (Deschampsia cespitosa) Form: Tufts, patches, or spreading green swards Leaves: Slender and sharply pointed Flowers: In spikelets Found: Threatened grass found in swamps, estuaries and damp stream sides Cushion bog (Donatia novae-zelandiae) Cushion bog (Donatia novae-zelandiae) Form: Very compact raised cushions, 50cm or more across Leaves: Overlapping at edges, glossy, bright green Flowers: Small, solitary, white Found: Lowland bogs to alpine wetlands. Now very restricted in Awarua Plains wetlands and is localised and very uncommon in Invercargill area. Normally grows in the sub-alpine zone Peatland Plants Wirerush (Empodisma minus) Manuka, Tea-tree (Leptospermum scoparium) Manuka, Tea-tree (Leptospermum scoparium) Form: Large shrub or small tree, up to 8m in height Bark: Stringy grey-brown bark, peels off in long strips Leaves: Small, prickly to touch Flower: Masses of white flowers Fruit: Characteristic woody seed capsules Found: Widespread Wirerush (Empodisma minus) Form: Rush-like herb, wiry, dark green carpets or scrambling a metre or more up among bases of taller plants Stems: Many branched Flowers: Small spikelets Found: Lowland to alpine bogs, swamps and damp scrub page 21

23 Blue sun orchid (Theylmitra cyanea) Blue sun orchid (Theylmitra cyanea) Form: Ground orchid, 20-50cm high Leaves: Narrow, fleshy Flowers: Deep blue, streaked with darker blue lines, white and creamy yellow in the centre Found: Bogs, boggy shrubland, wet ground under manuka Turpentine shrub/inaka (Dracophyllum longifolium) Turpentine shrub/inaka (Dracophyllum longifolium) Form: Shrub or tree 1-2 m tall, branches erect Leaves: Linear, pale green, stiff and pointed Flowers: Creamy white, in erect or drooping inflorescences Found: Often on peaty soils, including bogs Scented sundew (Drosera binata) Form: Erect, tufted herb, covered in sticky hairs to entrap small insects Leaves: Reddish, forked Flowers: Creamy, several at top of stalks up to 50cm tall Fruit: Very small capsules Found: Wet ground and bogs Scented sundew (Drosera binata) Bladderwort (Utricularia monanthos) Bladderwort (Utricularia monanthos) Form: Tiny, delicate plant Stems: Erect and very slender, white creeping stems bear tiny leaves and even tinier compressed white bladders, 1-3cm tall Flowers: Purple with yellow eye, single or occasionally two Leaves: Tiny, narrow and green Found: Low altitude bogs, shallow tarns, lakesides and shallow streambeds among moss page 22

24 Alpine Plants Sphagnum moss (Sphagnum cristatum) Sphagnum moss (Sphagnum cristatum) Form: Pale green to yellow brown, deep, sodden cushions Found: On very wet ground in forest, scrub, shrubland and open bogs from sealevel to alpine areas Alpine Daisy (Celmisia alpina) Alpine Daisy (Celmisia alpina) Form: Small tufted herb Leaves: Narrow thin leaves, pointed, hairless, grey-green above, white below Flowers: Stems 3-5cm long, white petals, yellow center, 1.5-2cm diameter Found: Low alpine areas, confined to bogs Buttercup (Ranunculus foliosus) Form: Compact, hairy rosettes variable in size and leaf shape Leaves: Firm, hairy, 2-3cm wide, oval shaped, jaggered edges in three lobes Flowers: 15-20mm diameter, bright yellow, on hairy stalk Found: River terraces, forest margins, flushes, and bog margins Buttercup (Ranunculus foliosus) Daisy leaved gentian (Gentiana bellidifolia) Form: Stout rooted herb, may be singular or branched Leaves: Thick almost fleshy overlapping leaves Flowers: White single flower or 2-6 flowers together in tight flat-topped head, bell shaped Found: High altitude tussock grasslands and herbfields Daisy Leaved Gentian (Gentiana bellidifolia) page 23

25 Comb/Cushion sedge (Oreobolus pectinatus) White caltha (Caltha obtusa) White caltha (Caltha obtusa) Form: Low growing creeping herb, forming mats Leaves: 1-3cm long, broad, upturned Flowers: Sweet scented white flower, 2-3 cm diameter Found: Alpine stream sides, permanently wet hollows, snow banks Comb/Cushion sedge (Oreobolus pectinatus) Form: Lower leaves pressed against ground with distinctive upright rosette, leaves deeply divided, leaf-like stipules, large orange sheaths on flower stems Leaves: Deeply divided to prominent yellow midrib, with a pair of leaf-like stipules on each Flowers: Stem 30 cm tall, large orange sheaths on flower stem Found: Alpine, stream sides, wet depressions and snow banks Bog speargrass (Aciphylla pinnatifida) Form: Very dense low lying tuffs, forming hard circular cushions up to 50 cm in diameter Leaves: Distinctly arranged in one plane with broad veined sheathing Flowers: Single spiklets, which are inconspicuous among leaves Found: Alpine bogs, herb moors, sometimes in wet depressions among tussock grasslands and herb fields Bog speargrass (Aciphylla pinnatifida) Sky lily (Herpolirion novae-zelandiae) Sky lily (Herpolirion novae-zelandiae) Form: Tufts Flowers: Conspicuous for size of plant, pale to sky blue,creamy white toward centre with orange anthers Leaves: Blue green, rather stiff, grass like Found: Low altitude to montane damp open shrubland, boggy and sandy ground page 24

26 pest plants in wetlands Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.) Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.) Form: Scrambling multi-stemmed spiny bush Leaves: Compound, toothed leaflets, prickly Flowers: Single, white-pink flowers Fruit: Fleshy edible fruit Seeds: Seeds spread by birds Threat: Stems will root when in contact with the soil Smothers native herbs and shrubs Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Surveillance Plant Gorse (Ulex europaeus) Gorse (Ulex europaeus) Form: Sharply spined, densely branched shrub, deeply rooted, up to 4m high Leaves: Prickly, dark green Flowers: Yellow flowers Threat: Pioneer plant, can colonise just about anywhere. Seed pods explode distributing the seed. Fire hazard. Long-lived seed bank Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Total Control Plant in urban areas of Southland, and Containment Plant elsewhere in the region. Refer to Appendix 1 of the Regional Pest Management Strategy Spartina (Spartina angilica) Spartina (Spartina angilica) Form: Grows up to 1m tall in shallow saltwater. Colonies of spartina form dense grassy clumps and extensive swards Leaves: Broad and pointed from the base to the top Seeds: Contained in top of stem. Spreads easily by seeds floating on water or shoots sprouting from below ground Threat: Introduced to New Zealand to reclaim tidal flats, this perennial estuarine grass spread very quickly to other coastal areas where it built up the level of the flats so that they were no longer tidal, removing habitat for fish and invertebrates - the food sources for coastal birds. In Southland large scale efforts are being made to get rid of it Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Total Control Plant throughout the region page 25

27 Broom (Cytisus scoparius) Broom (Cytisus scoparius) Form: Erect shrub up to 3m high. Many branches with ribbed green stems Leaves: Small, in threes, close to stalk Flowers: Bright yellow, pea like Threat: Tolerant of cold and low fertility soils. Also has exploding seed pods. Similar to gorse, but in more open land. Not strictly a problem of wetlands, but a problem around the edges Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Total Control Plant in urban areas of Southland, and Containment Plant elsewhere in the region. Refer to Appendix 1 of the Regional Pest Management Strategy Spanish heath (Erica lusitanica) Oxygen weed/lagarosiphon (L. major) Crack willow (Salix fragilis) Crack willow (Salix fragilis) Form: Tree, with brittle yellow twigs, dark brown bark Grows to 15 to 25m or can remain as shrub Leaves: Broad, flat, simple shaped, pale on lower surface, approximately 1 to 4cm wide Threat: Unwanted spread can clog waterways, contribute to flooding through restricting flow, reduces the variety of flows and alters the ecology of a waterway Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: A strategy for crack willow is in development Spanish heath (Erica lusitanica) Form: Brittle and erect woody shrub up to 2m tall Leaves: Small, needle-like, densely cover plant Flowers: White inflorescences Seeds: Small, in capsule, easily dispersed by wind Threat: Forms dense stands on disturbed and bare sites. Can alter short, open indigenous scrub communities and tussock grassland Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Surveillance Plant Oxygen weed/lagarosiphon (L. major) Form: Freshwater herb, grows submerged in water Leaves: Spiralled, on a much branched stem Threat: Spreads from broken pieces, infestations restrict recreational activities, suppresses other desirable species and impedes water flow Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Total Control Plant throughout the Region page 26

28 Darwin s barberry (Berberis darwinii) Darwin s barberry (Berberis darwinii) Form: Evergreen woody shrub, with thorns, up to 4m tall Leaves: Dark green, glossy and spiny Flowers: Yellow-orange flowers hanging in clusters Fruit: Dark purple/black berry, seeds bird-dispersed Threat: Shade tolerant and grows rapidly in an open environment. Can form impenetrable prickly barriers Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Total Control Plant within the Stewart Island, Tuatapere and Te Anau wards and Surveillance Plant elsewhere Grey willow (Salix cinerea) Grey willow (Salix cinerea) Form: Small tree up to 7m high Leaves: Shiny on upper surface, covered with soft grey hairs underneath Threat: Can become dominant vegetation, excluding other vegetation, often found growing in swamps, riverbanks and wet areas behind coastal dunes. Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Surveillance Plant Reed sweet grass (Glyceria maxima) Reed sweet grass (Glyceria maxima) Form: Large grass plant up to 3m tall Likes to live in moist areas such as the edge of waterways and ditches Leaves: Long, broad, erect Threat: Dense growth impedes water flow, smothers all other vegetation and causes sedimentation and flooding. Also prevents whitebait from spawning and known to poison cattle Classification in Regional Pest Management Strategy: Surveillance Plant page 27

29 Important Contacts For further information and advice on wetland care and how you can get involved, refer to the list of agencies below. Bushy Point Educational Boardwalk Contact: Ian and Jenny Gamble 197 Grant Rd, Otatara Phone: Access to boardwalk by prior arrangement Department of Conservation Southland Conservancy Office.State Insurance Building Don St, PO Box 743, Invercargill All enquiries phone: Website: Environment Southland Corner North Road and Price St, Waikiwi, Invercargill All enquiries phone: or Website: Fish and Game New Zealand, Southland Region 159 North Road, Invercargill All enquiries phone: Website: Gore District Council 29 Civic Avenue, Gore PO Box 8, Gore All enquiries phone: Website: Invercargill City Council Resource Management Division or the Parks Division of the Invercargill City Council. Civic Administration Building 101 Esk St, Private Bag 90104, Invercargill. All enquiries phone: Website: Queen Elizabeth II National Trust National Office, PO Box 3341, Wellington Call free: 0508 QE2 TRUST ( ) Southland Region Contact: Gay Munro Mokotua, RD5, Invercargill Phone: Website: Southland Community Nursery Contact: Chris and Brian Rance 185 Grant Rd, Otatara Phone: Website: Southland District Council 15 Forth Street, Invercargill PO Box 903 Invercargill All enquiries phone: Website: Further Reading Bill, A. (1999) Significant Natural Areas - Invercargill City District. Report prepared for the Invercargill City Council. Crisp, P. (1986) Coastal Wetlands. Nature Conservation Council, Wellington. Cromarty, P. (1996) A Directory of Wetlands in New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington. Crowe, A. (1995) Which Coastal Plant?: A Simple Guide to the Identification of New Zealand s Common Coastal Plants. Penguin Books Dawson, J. and Lucas, R. (1996) New Zealand Coast and Mountain Plants, their communities and lifestyles. Victoria University Press. Dugan, P. (1993) Wetlands in Danger. A World Conservation Atlas. Oxford University Press, New York. Environment Southland (May 2002) Regional Pest Management Strategy. Johnson, P and Brooke, P. (1998) Wetland Plants in New Zealand. Manaaki Whenua Press. Mark, A.F and Adams N.A (1973) New Zealand Alpine Plants. A.H and A.W Reed Ltd Wilson, H.D (1982) Stewart Island Plants - Field Guide. Field Guide Publications, Christchurch. page 28

30 Glossary Algal Bloom : An excessive proliferation of algae in a water body, usually associated with higher than normal nutrient levels Anaerobic: Requiring oxygen free conditions to live Biodiversity: Overall diversity of native species and ecosystems Carnivorous plant: A plant that digests trapped insects or other animal substances Colonising species: A species of plant that is able to establish itself in a new area Community: A group of plants growing together in the same area Divaricating: Intertangled stems spreading at wide angles Ecosystem: A biological community of organisms and their physical environment Fruit: Ripened ovary containing seeds Habit: General appearance of plant Habitat: The natural home of an organism Indigenous: Native to an area, not introduced Leaching: A liquid permeating (or filtering) through some material Oxbow Lake: A deep pool of still or slow flowing water in an abandoned meander loop of a river Perennial: Lives for more than two years Pest Plants: As defined in the Regional Pest Management Strategy: Containment Pest: a pest that is abundant in suitable habitats in the region. The goal is to prevent adverse effects and the pest spreading to new areas or neighbouring properties, and, if practicable, reduce the area affected Surveillance Pest: a pest of concern to the region, but there is no requirement for the land occupier to control these pests Total Control Pest: a pest that is of limited distribution or density in the region. The goal is eradication Riparian: Of or on the bank of a river or lake Sedimentation: The process whereby matter settles to the bottom of a liquid Sequence: A set of things belonging next to one another Sward: An expanse of short grass Tarn: A relatively small and deep, steep-sided lake or pool occupying an ice-gouged basin amid glaciated mountains Zonation: Bands of singular or multiple plant species Wetland Types: Simplified terms have been used in this booklet to classify wetlands. The detailed framework for classifying New Zealand wetlands is available on the National Wetlands Trust website: Acknowledgments The following people and organisations, are acknowledged for providing information and help with the preparation of this booklet: Department of Conservation Fish and Game New Zealand, Southland Region Te Ao Marama Inc Chris and Brian Rance Wynston Cooper Written and compiled by: Hovell Environmental Planning page 29

31 Index to Plants Page Alpine daisy (Celmisia alpina) 23 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.) 25 Bladderwort (Utricularia monanthos) 22 Blue sun orchid (Theylmitra cyanea) 22 Bog Speargrass (Aciphylla pinnatifida) 24 Broom (Cytisus scoparius) 26 Buttercup (Ranunculus foliosus) 23 Cabbage tree/ti kouka (Cordyline australis) 20 Comb/Cushion Sedge (Oreobolus pectinatus) 24 Crack willow (Salix fragilis) 26 Cushion bog (Donatia novae-zelandiae) 21 Daisy leaved gentian (Gentiana bellidifolia) 23 Darwin s barberry (Berberis darwinii) 27 Dwarf plantain (Plantago triandra) 18 Eelgrass/Nana (Zostera novazelandica) 17 Flax/harakeke (Phormium tenax) and Mountain flax/wharariki (Phormium cookianum) 20 Glasswort/Ureure (Sarcornia quinque-flora) 17 Gorse (Ulex europaeus) 25 Grey willow (Salix cinerea) 27 Knobby clubrush/wiiwii (Isolepis nodosa) 18 Manuka, Tea-tree (Leptospermum scoparium) 21 Mingimingi (Coprosma propinqua) 19 Native celery/tutae koau (Apium prostratum) 18 Oioi/jointed wirerush (Leptocarpus similis) 19 Oxygen weed/lagarosiphon (L. major) 26 Purei/makura (Carex secta) 19 Red tussock (Chionochloa rubra) 20 Reed sweet grass (Glyceria maxima) 27 Saltmarsh ribbonwood, Makaka (Plagianthus divaricatus) 19 Scented sundew (Drosera binata) 22 Sea primrose (Samolus repens) 18 Selliera/Remuremu (Selliera radicans) 17 Sky lily (Herpolirion novae-zelandiae) 24 Spanish heath (Erica lusitanica) 26 Spartina (Spartina angilica) 25 Sphagnum moss (Sphagnum cristatum) 23 Toetoe (Cortaderia richardii) 20 Tuffed hair grass (Deschampsia cespitosas) 21 Turpentine shrub/inaka (Dracophyllum longifolium) 22 White caltha (Caltha obtusa) 24 Wirerush (Empodisma minus) 21 page 30

32 G o r e I n v e r c a r g i l l S o u t h l a n d Lead Agency Invercargill city council CITY OF WATER AND LIGHT Invercargill City Council Private Bag Invercargill 9520 New Zealand Phone (03) Fax (03) N e w Z e a l a n d