SMART SENSORS SMART SENSORS. Understanding SMART SENSORS. Understanding. Third Edition. Randy Frank. Understanding. Randy Frank. Third Edition.

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1 Understanding Third Edition Randy Frank Critical coverage of sensor fusion and energy harvesting; The latest details on wireless technology; The roles and challenges involved with sensor apps and cloud sensing, Greater emphasis on applications throughout the book; Dozens of figures and examples of current technologies from over 50 companies. Utilizing the latest in smart sensors, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), and microelectronic research and development, readers get the technical and practical information they need to keep their designs and products on the cutting edge. Plus, engineers see how network (wired and wireless) connectivity continues to impact smart sensor development and the emerging need for trusted sensing. By combining information on micromachining and microelectronics, this is the first book that links these two important aspects of smart sensor technology so professionals don t have to keep multiple references on hand. This comprehensive resource also includes an extensive list of smart sensor acronyms and a glossary of key terms. With an effective blend of historical information and the latest content, the third edition of Understanding Smart Sensors provides a unique combination of foundational and future-changing information. Include bar code: ISBN-13: ISBN-10: BOSTON LONDON Understanding SMART SENSORS Third Edition Third Edition Randy Frank is the president of Randy Frank and Associates in Scottsdale, Arizona. A wellestablished author and holder of three patents, Mr. Frank received his B.S. and M.S. in electrical engineering, as well as his M.B.A. in management, from Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan. He is a Society of Automotive Engineers Fellow, former chairman and a member of the SAE Sensors Standards Committee, an IEEE Fellow, and a former member of the IEEE 1451 Smart Transducer Interface standards committee. SMART SENSORS Now in its third edition, Understanding Smart Sensors is the most complete, up-to-date, and authoritative summary of the latest applications and developments impacting smart sensors in a single volume. This thoroughly expanded and revised edition of an Artech bestseller contains a wealth of new material, including: Understanding SMART SENSORS Frank Randy Frank

2 Contents Preface xvii CHAPTER 1 Smart Sensor Basics Introduction Mechanical-Electronic Transitions in Sensing Nature of Sensors Integration of Micromachining and Microelectronics Application Example Summary 13 References 13 Selected Bibliography 14 CHAPTER 2 Micromachining Introduction Bulk Micromachining Wafer Bonding Silicon-on-Silicon Bonding Silicon-on-Glass (Anodic) Bonding Silicon Fusion Bonding Wafer Bonding for More Complex Structures and Adding ICs Surface Micromachining Squeeze-Film Damping Stiction Particulate Control Combinations of Surface and Bulk Micromachining Other Micromachining Techniques The LIGA Process Dry Etching Processes Micromilling Lasers in Micromachining Combining MEMS with IC Fabrication Other Micromachined Materials Diamond as an Alternate Sensor Material 34 vii

3 viii Contents Metal Oxides and Piezoelectric Sensing Films on Microstructures Micromachining Metal Structures Carbon Nanotube MEMS MEMS Foundry Services and Software Tools Application Example Summary 42 References 42 Selected Bibliography 45 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Semiconductor Sensor Output Introduction Sensor Output Characteristics Wheatstone Bridge Piezoresistivity in Silicon Semiconductor Sensor Definitions Static Versus Dynamic Operation Other Sensing Technologies Capacitive Sensing Piezoelectric Sensing The Hall-Effect Chemical Sensors Improving Sensor Characteristics Digital Output Sensors Incremental Optical Encoders Digital Techniques Noise/Interference Aspects Low Power, Low Voltage Sensors Impedance Analysis of Sensitivity Improvement Thin Diaphragm Increase Diaphragm Area Improve Topology Application Example Summary 64 References 64 CHAPTER 4 Getting Sensor Information Into the Microcontroller Introduction Amplification and Signal Conditioning Instrumentation Amplifiers Sleep-Mode Circuitry for Reducing Power Rail to Rail Operational Amplifiers Switched-Capacitor Amplifier 72

4 Contents ix Barometer Application Circuit to 20-mA Signal Transmitter Schmitt Trigger Separate Versus Integrated Signal Conditioning Integrated Signal Conditioning External Signal Conditioning Digital Conversion A/D Converters Performance of A/D Converters Implications of A/D Accuracy and Errors On-Line Tool for Evaluating a Sensor Interface Design Application Example Summary 81 References 83 Selected Bibliography 84 CHAPTER 5 Using MCUs/DSPs to Increase Sensor IQ Introduction Other IC Technologies Logic Requirements MCU Control MCUs for Sensor Interface Peripherals Memory Input/Output On-Board A/D Conversion Power Saving Capability Local Voltage or Current Regulation DSP Control Digital Signal Controllers Field Programmable Gate Arrays Algorithms Versus Look-Up Tables Techniques and Systems Considerations Linearization PWM Control Autozero and Autorange Diagnostics Reducing EMC/RFI Indirect (Computed not Sensed) Versus Direct Sensing Software, Tools, and Support Design-in Support Sensor Integration Application Example Summary 102 References 103

5 x Contents CHAPTER 6 Communications for Smart Sensors Introduction Background and Definitions Definitions Background Sources (Organizations) and Standards Automotive Protocols CAN Protocol LIN Protocol Media Oriented Systems Transport FlexRay Other Automotive Protocol Aspects Industrial Networks Example Industrial Protocols Protocols in Other Applications Protocols in Silicon MCU with Integrated CAN LIN Implementation Ethernet Controller Transitioning Between Protocols Application Example Summary 123 References 123 Additional References 124 CHAPTER 7 Control Techniques Introduction Programmable Logic Controllers Open- Versus Closed-Loop Systems PID Control State Machines Fuzzy Logic Neural Networks Combined Fuzzy Logic and Neural Networks Adaptive Control Observers for Sensing Other Control Areas RISC Versus CISC Impact of Artificial Intelligence Application Example Summary 142 References 143

6 Contents xi CHAPTER 8 Wireless Sensing Introduction The RF Spectrum Spread Spectrum Wireless Data and Communications Wireless Sensing Networks ZigBee ZigBee-Like Wireless ANT LoWPAN Near Field Communication (NFC) Z-Wave Dust Networks Other RF Wireless Solutions Optical Signal Transmission Industrial Wireless Sensing Networks RF Sensing Surface Acoustic Wave Devices Radar Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Global Positioning System Remote Emissions Sensing Remote Keyless Entry Intelligent Transportation System RF-ID Other Remote Sensing Telemetry RF MEMS Application Example Summary 168 References 169 Selected Bibliography 171 CHAPTER 9 MEMS Beyond Sensors Introduction MEMS Actuators Microvalves Micromotors Micropumps Microdynamometer Microsteam Engine Actuators in Other Semiconductor Materials 180

7 xii Contents 9.3 Other Micromachined Structures Cooling Channels Microoptics Microgripper Microprobes Micromirrors Heating Elements Thermionic Emitters Field Emission Devices Unfoldable Microelements Micronozzles Interconnects for Stacked Wafers Nanoguitar Application Example Summary 194 References 194 CHAPTER 10 Packaging, Testing, and Reliability Implications of Smarter Sensors Introduction Semiconductor Packaging Applied to Sensors Increased Pin Count Hybrid Packaging Ceramic Packaging and Ceramic Substrates Multichip Modules Dual-Chip Packaging BGA Packaging Common Packaging for Sensors Plastic Packaging Surface-Mount Packaging Flip-Chip Wafer-Level Packaging D Packaging Reliability Implications The Physics of Failure Wafer-Level Sensor Reliability Testing Smarter Sensors Application Example Summary 215 References 216 CHAPTER 11 Mechatronics and Sensing Systems Introduction Integration and Mechatronics 219

8 Contents xiii 11.2 Smart-Power ICs Embedded Sensing Temperature Sensing Current Sensing in Power ICs Diagnostics MEMS Relays Other System Aspects Batteries Field Emission Displays System Voltage Transients, Electrostatic Discharge, and Electromagnetic Interference Application Example Summary 233 References 233 CHAPTER 12 Standards for Smart Sensing Introduction Setting the Standards for Smart Sensors and Systems IEEE Network-Capable Application Processor Network Communication Models IEEE STIM Transducer Electronic Data Sheet TII Calibration/Correction Engine Sourcing Power to STIMs Representing Physical Units in the TEDS IEEE IEEE IEEE IEEE P IEEE Extending the System to the Network Application Example Summary 254 References 255 Selected Bibliography 256 CHAPTER 13 More Standards Impacting Sensors Introduction Sensor Plug and Play Universal Serial Bus 259

9 xiv Contents 13.4 Development Tools Establish De Facto Standards Alternate Standards Airplane Networks Automotive Safety Network Another Automotive Safety Network Automotive Sensor Protocol Consumer/Cell Phone Apps Application Example Summary 269 References 269 CHAPTER 14 Sensor Fusion Introduction Sensor and Other Fusion Background Automotive Applications Ranging and Vision Sensor Fusion for Virtual Sensors Autonomous Driving Industrial (Robotic) Applications Consumer Applications Fusion Software in the Sensor Separate Fusion Software Flexible Fusion Software Agnostic Sensor Fusion Simulation and Testing Application Example Summary 282 References 282 Selected Bibliography 284 CHAPTER 15 Energy Harvesting for Wireless Sensor Nodes Introduction Applications Drive Technology Implementation and Development Structural Health Monitoring Building Automations Systems Industrial Applications Automotive Aircraft Portable Consumer Remote Distributed Applications Complete System Consideration 287

10 Contents xv 15.4 EH Technologies Thermoelectric EH Piezoelectric EH Photovoltaic EH Electromagnetic EH RF EH Electromechanical EH Multiple Energy Sources Future Concepts Energy Storage Batteries Ultracapacitors Energy Budget Power Management ICs MCUs Wireless Transmission Sensor Power Consumption Development Systems Application Example Summary 304 References 306 Selected Bibliography 308 CHAPTER 16 The Next Phase of Sensing Systems Introduction Future Sensor Plus Semiconductor Capabilities Monolithic Versus Package-Level Integration Future System Requirements Sensing in Automobiles Sensing in Smart Phones Health Care Sensors Software, Sensing, and the System Sensor Apps Cloud Sensing Trusted Sensing Alternate Views of Smart Sensing The Smart Loop Application Example Summary 324 Acknowledgment 325 References 325 Selected Bibliography 327