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1 EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta L.) CV. PUSA NARANGI By THUMAR BALUBHAI VALLABHBHAI M. Sc. (Agri.) DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH MARCH (Registration No. J )

2 EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta L.) CV. PUSA NARANGI A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HORTICULTURE By THUMAR BALUBHAI VALLABHBHAI M. Sc. (Agri.) DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH March (Registration No. J ) i

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4 EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta L.) CV. PUSA NARANGI Name of Student Major Advisor B. V. Thumar Dr. A. V. Barad DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH ABSTRACT A field experiment entitled Effect of integrated nutrient management on African marigold (Tegetes erecta L.) cv. Pusa Narangi was conducted at Lalbaug, Department of Horticulture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh on medium black calcareous soil, during winter season of two consecutive years i.e and The experiment comprising eleven (11) treatment combinations consisted of three levels of NPK (70%, 60% and 50% RDF), and three levels of vermicompost (2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 tha -1 ) with three biofertilizers (Azotobacter, Azospirillum and PSB) and FYM 15 t ha -1 with RDF and control (only RDF without FYM) and their combinations were tried in Randomized Block Design with three replications. The results of the experiment indicated that, application of 70 % RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + iii

5 Azospirillium + PSB significantly improved growth parameters viz., plant height at full bloom stage ( cm), number of primary branches per plant at full bloom stage (28.06), plant spread in North-South and East-West directions at full bloom stage (89.28 and cm, respectively), fresh and dry weight ( and 95.29g, respectively) of the plant. Treatment T8 (60% RDF + 3 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) significantly improved flowering parameters viz., the shortest number of days taken to first flower open (53.72 days) and number of picking (9.12), the shortest number of days taken for 50 % flowering (59.50 days), the maximum diameter of flower (7.30 cm) and number of flower per plant (52.52) recorded in treatment T5 (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB), the longest duration of flowering (61.14 days), was recorded in T4 (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azospirillium + PSB), number of ray florets per flower (147.77) was obtained in treatment T11 (50% RDF + 4 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB). Treatment T5 (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) significantly gave higher yield parameters viz., average weight of flower (7.17g), flower yield per plant (376.57), flower yield per net plot (12.05 kg), flower yield per hectare ( q ha -1 ). Quality parameters viz., shelf life of flower was significantly higher (4.95 days) in treatment T2 (200kg N ha kg P2O5 ha kg K2O ha t ha -1 FYM (RDF)) and vase life of flower (7.79 days) registered significantly longest under the treatment T11 (50% RDF + 4 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB). iv

6 Initial and final status in the soil characters viz., soil reaction (ph), electrical conductivity (EC) and Organic carbon significantly affected by the different treatments. Treatment T11 (50% RDF + 4 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) was reduced the ph (7.06), Treatment T8 (60% RDF + 3 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) increased EC (0.50) and treatment T5 (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) recorded the highest OC (1.78). The results of the experiment indicated that, The maximum (1.36 % and kg ha -1 ) nitrogen content in the plant and uptake by the plant recorded in treatment T5 (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB). Application of 60% RDF + 3 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB recorded significantly highest (0.426% and kgha -1 ) phosphorus content in the pant and uptake by the plant. Treatment T11 (50% RDF + 4 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) registered significantly highest (1.93% and kgha -1 ) potassium content in the plant and uptake by the plant. The results indicated that, treatment T5 (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) gave the maximum ( N kg ha -1 ), availability of nitrogen. The highest (34.31 P2O5 kg ha -1 ) availability of phosphorus (P2O5) recorded in treatment T8 (60% RDF + 3 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) and application of 50% RDF + 4 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB (T11) registered significantly highest ( K2O kg ha -1 ) availability of potassium in the soil. v

7 From economic point of view, the highest gross realization ( Rs ha -1 ) and net realization ( Rs ha -1 ) was obtained with treatment T5 (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) as compared to rest of the treatments. Similar treatment also showed the highest C.B.R. value (1:3.15). Results have clearly showed that the cost of fertilizers can be saved with dual inoculation of Azotobacter, Azospirillium and PSB, besides, obtaining higher flower yield of African marigold. The use of bio fertilizers and returns, it improves the soil structure and texture, reduces pollution of soil due to reduced fertilizer application is beneficial for the present problems of high cost of fertilizers and environment pollution. Therefore, it may be concluded that the use of (70% RDF + 2 t ha -1 vermicompost + Azotobacter + Azospirillium + PSB) Treatment (T5) helped in realizing better plant growth, higher quality, flower yield of African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) cv. Pusa Narangi under open field condition. vi

8 Dr. A. V. Barad Principal and Dean, College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh CERTIFICATE TE This is to certify that, the thesis entitled EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta L.) CV. PUSA NARANGI submitted by SHRI THUMAR BALUBHAI VALLABHBHAI in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in HORTICULTURE to the Junagadh Agricultural University, is a record of bonafide research work carried out by him under my guidance and supervision, and the thesis has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or other similar title. Place : Junagadh ( A. V. Barad ) Date : 08/03/ 2013 Major advisor vii

9 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH CERTIFICATE-I This is to certify that SHRI THUMAR BALUBHAI VALLABHBHAI has successfully completed the comprehensive/ preliminary examination held on as required under the regulation for Post-Graduate Studies. Place : Junagadh Date : 10/05/2013 (A. V. Barad) Major Guide & Principal & Dean College of Agriculture J.A.U., Junagadh (R.S.Chovatia) Professor & Head Department of Horticulture College of Agriculture J.A.U., Junagadh viii

10 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH CERTIFICATE-II Date: This is to certify that the thesis entitled EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta L.) CV. PUSA NARANGI submitted for the degree of Ph.D in the subject of HORTICULTURE embodies bonafide research work carried-out by SHRI THUMAR BALUBHAI VALLABHBHAI under my guidance and supervision and that no part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree. The assistance and help received during the course of investigation have been fully acknowledged. Place : Junagadh Date : 10/05/2013 (A. V. Barad) Major Guide & Principal & Dean College of Agriculture J.A.U., Junagadh (A. V. Barad) Principal & Dean College of Agriculture J.A.U., Junagadh (R.S.Chovatia) Professor & Haed, Department of Horticulture, J.A.U., Junagadh ix

11 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH CERTIFICATE-III Date: This is to certify that the thesis entitled EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta L.) CV. PUSA NARANGI submitted by SHRI THUMAR BALUBHAI VALLABHBHAI to Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh in partial fulfillment to the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. in the subject of HORTICULTURE after recommendation by the external examiner was defended by the candidate before the following members of the examination committee. The performance of the candidate in the oral examination was satisfactory, we therefore, recommended that the thesis be approved. (A. V. Barad) Major Guide & Principal & Dean College of Agriculture J.A.U., Junagadh (J.V.Polara ) Co-Guide & Professor Agril. Chem. & soil science, College of Agriculture J.A.U., Junagadh (J.S. Arora) External Examiner, Retd. Prof & Head Floriculture, PAU, Ludhiana (S.L. Chavala) External Examiner, Associate Professor ASPEE College of Horticulture, NAU, Navsari (A. V. Barad) Principal & Dean, College of Agriculture, J.A.U., Junagadh Approved (R.S.Chovatia) Professor & Head, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, J.A.U., Junagadh (C. J. Dangaria) Director of Research & Dean P.G. J.A.U. Junagadh x

12 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH CERTIFICATE-IV Date: This is to certify that SHRI THUMAR BALUBHAI VALLABHBHAI student of Ph.D., Horticulture has made all correction/modifications in the thesis entitled EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta L.) CV. PUSA NARANGI as suggested by the external examiner and the advisory committee in the oral examination held on The final copies of the thesis duly bound and corrected have been submitted on Place : Junagadh Date : /05/2013 (A. V. Barad) Major Guide & Principal & Dean College of Agriculture J.A.U., Junagadh xi

13 A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T I express my deep admiration and immense gratitude to my major advisor Dr. A. V. Barad, Principal and Dean, College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh for his valuable guidance, incessant encouragement and keen interest throughout the course of the present investigation and preparation of this manuscript. Sense of obligation compels me to express my sincere gratitude to members of my advisory committee, Dr. J. V. Polara, Professor (Agril-Chemistry), Dr. R.S. Chovsytia, Professor and Head, (Horticulture), Dr. A N. Makavana, Professor (Horticulture), Dr. B. L. Varmoda, Associate Professor (Agril. Statistics) College of agriculture, J.A.U. Junagadh. I am immensely grateful to Junagadh Agricultural University for allowing me in the in-service Ph.D. study. I also record my sincere thanks to Dr. N. C. Patel, Vice Chancellor, Dr. C.J. Dagaria, Director of Research & Dean P. G. Studies, and Dr. A.V. Barad, Principal, College of Agriculture, Junagadh for providing necessary facilities during this study. Thanks are due to the staff members of the Department Dr. D..V. Delvadia, Dr. R.R. Viradiya, Dr. K. M. Karetha,Dr. D. K. Varu Shri M.L. Mehta, Shri D.K. Dadhania, Shri G. B. Hirpara, Shri J. S. Desai, Shri H.K. Karagia and others for their help needed during the investigation. I extent my heartfelt thanks to staff members of Central Library, Teaching branch of Principal office, Academic branch of Registrar office and Examination branch of Director of Research, for their cooperation during my study. I would like to express my cordial thanks to my colleagues, Dr. V.B. Bhalu, Dr. D.M. Pathak, Dr. N.S. Joshi, and Dr. N. D. Polara, for their help and joyful company, during the entire course of investigation and preparation of this manuscript. I would also thankful to my junior friend of JAU Miss Neelima Palagani, Nilima Bhosale, Nitish, Prabhakar, Mahesh and Vishal. Finally, I cordially extend my esteem and sincere appreciation to my divine wife Rekha, funny son Nayan and loving daughter Rutika for their encouragement, commendable patience, personal sacrifice and everlasting love during the period of my investigation. Last but least, I cannot forget the constant blessings of God through out the period. Place : Junagadh Date : 8 th, March, 2013 (B. V. Thumar) xii

14 13 CONTENT CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO. I INTRODUCTION II REVIEW OF LITERATURE III MATERIALS AND METHODS IV EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS V DISCUSSION VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION REFERENCES I-XXIX APPENDICES XXIX-XXXIV

15 14 LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO. TITLE 3.1 Meteorological data recorded during crop season of Meteorological data recorded during crop season of 2012 After Page 3.3 Physico- chemical properties of the experimental soil Observations recorded during investigation Effect of integrated nutrient management on plant height (cm) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.2 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of primary branches per plant of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.3 Effect of integrated nutrient management on plant spread (cm) N-S of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.4 Effect of integrated nutrient management on plant spread (cm) E-W of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.5 Effect of integrated nutrient management on fresh weight of plant (g) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.6 Effect of integrated nutrient management on dry weight of plant (g) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.7 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of days taken to open first flower of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.8 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of days taken for 50 per cent flowering of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.9 Effect of integrated nutrient management on duration of flowering (days) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.10 Effect of integrated nutrient management on diameter of flower (cm) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.11 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of ray florets per flower of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.12 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of disc florets per flower of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.13 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of pickings of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.14 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of flower per plant of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi

16 15 TABLE NO. TITLE 4.15 Effect of integrated nutrient management on average weight of flower (g) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.16 Effect of integrated nutrient management on flower yield per plant (g) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.17 Effect of integrated nutrient management on flower yield per net plot (kg) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.18 Effect of integrated nutrient management on flower yield per hectare (qha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.19 Effect of integrated nutrient management on physiological weight loss (g) per day of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.20 Effect of integrated nutrient management on water uptake (ml) per day of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.21 Effect of integrated nutrient management on shelf life of flower (days) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.22 Effect of integrated nutrient management on vase life of flower (days) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.23 Effect of integrated nutrient management on soil reaction (ph) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.24 Effect of integrated nutrient management on Electrical Conductivity (EC) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.25 Effect of integrated nutrient management on Organic Carbon (OC)of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.26 Effect of integrated nutrient management on nitrogen content (%) in the plant of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.27 Effect of integrated nutrient management on phosphorus content (%) in the plant of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.28 Effect of integrated nutrient management on potassium content (%) in the plantof African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.29 Effect of integrated nutrient management on nitrogen uptake (N) by plant (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi After Page

17 16 TABLE NO. TITLE 4.30 Effect of integrated nutrient management on phosphorus uptake (P 2O 5) by plant (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.31 Effect of integrated nutrient management on potassium uptake (K 2O) by plant (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.32 Effect of integrated nutrient management on availability of nitrogen in the soil (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.33 Effect of integrated nutrient management on availability of phosphorus in the soil (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.34 Effect of integrated nutrient management on availability of potassium in the soil (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.35 Effect of integrated nutrient management on gross realization (Rs ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.36 Effect of integrated nutrient management on net realization (Rs ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.37 Effect of integrated nutrient management on cost benefit ratio (CBR) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi After Page

18 17 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE NO. TITLE 3.1 Meteorological data recorded during crop season of Meteorological data recorded during crop season of 2012 After Page 3.3 Layout of the experiment Effect of integrated nutrient management on plant height (cm) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.2 Effect of integrated nutrient management on dry weight of plant (g) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.3 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of days taken for 50 per cent flowering of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.4 Effect of integrated nutrient management on diameter of flower (cm) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.5 Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of flower per plant of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.6 Effect of integrated nutrient management on average weight of flower (g) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.7 Effect of integrated nutrient management on flower yield per plant (g) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.8 Effect of integrated nutrient management on flower yield per hectare (q ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.9 Effect of integrated nutrient management on shelf life of flower (days) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.10 Effect of integrated nutrient management on vase life of flower (days) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.11 Effect of integrated nutrient management on nitrogen content (%) in the plant of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.12 Effect of integrated nutrient management on nitrogen uptake (N) by plant (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi

19 18 FIGURE NO. TITLE 4.13 Effect of integrated nutrient management on availability of nitrogen in the soil (kg ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.14 Effect of integrated nutrient management on net realization (Rs ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi 4.15 Effect of integrated nutrient management on Cost Benefit Ratio (CBR) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi After Page

20 19 LIST OF PLATES PLATE NO. I II III IV TITLE Field view of the experiment at flower initiation stage of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Field view of the experiment at full bloom stage of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Effect of integrated nutrient management on diameter of flower (cm) of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Effect of integrated nutrient management on number of flowers per plant of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi After Page

21 20 LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX NO. I TITLE Schedule of cultural operations experimental Field during the course of investigation After Page XXIX II III Cost of cultivation economic details Details of operational cost Economics of different treatments (Pooled basis) XXIX XXIX

22 21 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ac : : At the rate of cm : Centimeter C.V. : Coefficient of variance CV : Cultivar et al. : Co-workers C.D. : Critical difference cv. : Cultivar CBR : Cost Benefit Ratio DAT : Days After Transplanting oc : Degree Celsius ds : Desi siemens Etc. : Etcetera FYM : Farm Yard Manure Fig. : Figure G : Gram Ha : Hectare H : Hour Int : Interaction Kg : Kilogram < : Less than Max. : Maximum M : Meter Mg : Milligram mm : Millimeter Min. : Minimum > : Greater than Viz. : Namely N : Nitrogen NS : Non-significant ppm : Parts per million PSB : Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria P : Phosphorus K : Potassium q : Quintal RBD : Randomized Block Design RDF : Recommended Dose of Fertilizer Rs. : Rupees S.Em. : Standard error of mean t : Tone var. : Variety

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24 23 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Appreciation of flowers transcends the boundaries of race, religion and countries and symbolizes of human s communication with nature. Yet, all flowers are not equally admired; preferences vary from person to person and also depend on place and period of history. The importance of flowers in the socio-cultural and religious lives of the Indian people is hardly exaggerated. Flowers not only enliven our surroundings but also help in ameliorating the polluted environment. Marigold is one of the most important commercial flower crops grown all over the world and in India as well; accounting for more than half of Nation s loose flower production (Sreekanth et al., 2006). It belongs to genus Tagetes of Asteraceae family, which is a native of Central and South America especially Mexico. About 33 species of this genus is reported. However, the cultivation of Tagetes erecta L. commonly known as African marigold and T. patula L. the French marigold dominates. African marigold (T. erecta L.) is also known as Gainda in Hindi. The plants are upright, quick growing and having large number of varieties in cultivation. There is much variation in the plant height, growing habits and, shape and size of flowers. The height of plants ranges from 25 to 100 cm or even more. The flowers of these varieties are large, deep orange (orpiment), light orange (tangerine), golden yellow, canary yellow, bright yellow and lemon yellow in colour. However, variety in pure white colour is also not uncommon in this species. The size of flower may vary from 5 to 12 cm (diameter). Second important species is T. patula L. (French marigold). It is hardy annual, possessing dwarf type plants (15-40

25 24 cm), early flowering with bushy and compact plant habit. Flower colours are seen yellow, golden, rusty red, mahogany red, orange, deep scarlet, crimson and often blotched, striped or spotted in different shades of colour. The flower heads may be single, double or cupid form. Besides the above mentioned two species, few other types of marigold are also grown such as; T. tenuifolia (single Signeta), T. signeta (Signeta), T. lucida (Sweet scented) and interspecific hybrids. Among them the interspecific hybrids in their triploid form (T. erecta x T. patula, 2n=36) and Colchi-hexaploids (T. erecta-patula, 2n=72) are marketed in U.S.A. and preferred because of combined intermediate characters like relatively large double flowers (5-8 cm diameter) with medium tall to dwarf habit and diversity in colour combination of red and gold, prolificacy of flowering and continued flowering due to sterile or partial sterile nature. Floriculture is fast emerging, rapidly expanding and vastly utilitarian industry in the present scenario. In India, at present total area under flower crops is about 1.91 lakh ha with production of about lakh MT of loose flowers and million number of cut flowers (Anon., 2011). Marigold is commercially grown throughout India including Gujarat. It occupies importance amongst gardeners and flower-dealers on account of its easy cultivation, wide adaptability to soil and climatic conditions, free flowering habit, short duration required for producing marketable flowers, wide spectrum of attractive colours, shape, size and good keeping quality. In landscape architecture, it is grown in flower beds, in borders and also even as potted plants. In India, it is mainly grown in the states of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Delhi. In Gujarat, the area under cultivation of marigold is recorded in Surat, Navsari, Bharuch, Gandhinagar,

26 25 Anand, Vadodara, Ahmedabad and Junagadh districts. Gujarat has ha area under floricultural crops with production of MT. in which area under marigold cultivation in Gujarat is 6326 ha with the production of MT loose flowers (Anon., 2012). The successful commercial cultivation of marigold depends on many factors such as climate, soil, irrigation, fertilization, plant density per unit area, season of growing etc. Amongst which nutrition plays an important role in growth, yield and quality of flowers. Although excessive use of inorganic fertilizers to achieve highest yield resulted numerous problems like micronutrient deficiencies, nutrient imbalance, deterioration of soil health and deteriorate crop yield. No single source of nutrient is capable of supplying plant nutrients in adequate amount and in balance proportion. Thus integrated nutrient management is a strategy for advocating judicious and efficient use of chemical fertilizers with matching addition of organic manures and biofertilizers. Such integrated nutrient management practices reduce the amount of inorganic fertilizers, control soil pollution in part at least caused due to use of high doses of fertilizers and protection of natural resources. Fertilizers mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potash play a leading role in maximizing the flower production. Under Saurashtra agro-climatic conditions, information on nitrogen, phosphorus and potash requirement of this crop is already worked out earlier, but combined effect with biofertilizers is to be worked out. Nitrogen is the most commonly deficient nutrient in the soil and gives considerable response to this crop. It has the quickest and the most pronounced effect on plant growth and development and ultimately on flower yield. It is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is essential for photosynthesis. Nitrogen is

27 26 essential constituent of protein and is present in many other compounds of physiological importance in plant metabolism such as nucleotide, phosphatides, alkaloids, enzymes, hormones and vitamins etc. Likewise, phosphorus is the key element in the process of conservation of solar energy into chemical energy. The optimum supply of phosphorus to the plant stimulates root development and growth thereby helps to establish seedling quickly. It also reduces the harmful effect of excess nitrogen in plants. Potassium is also one of the major elements essential for plant growth, flower yield and quality of marigold. Potassium is thought to be essential for the formation and translocation of carbohydrates and needed in large quantities by most of the crops. Biofertilizers are microbial inoculants of selective microorganisms help in improving soil fertility by way of accelerating biological nitrogen fixation, solubilization of the insoluble nutrients, decomposition of plant residues, stimulating plant growth and development ultimately. Azotobacter is one of the most important non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing micro-organisms. The biofertilizers can save 25 to 35 per cent of the requirement of inorganic nitrogen per hectare (Vyas et al., 1998). The beneficial effect of Azotobacter is attributed to its N fixing capacity (15-30kg ha -1 ) and also ability to produce growth promoting substances and antifungal antibiotics, which inhibit the growth of root pathogens. In increased costs of fertilizer and the over increasing demand of nutrients for flowers have emphasized the need for exploitation of alternative sources in general and biological nitrogen in particular. Application of Azotobacter would reduce the dependence on inorganic and organic source of nitrogen. Azotobacter is also known to synthesize biologically active growth promoting substances such as Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), gibberellins and B vitamins in culture media (Azcon and Barea, 1975).

28 27 On other hand, Azospirillum is non symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria and is also used as a biofertilizer. Azospirillum to their nitrogen fixing ability, certain strains denitrify under an aerobic condition and could also assimilate NH4 and NO3. Azospirillum has great promise in tropic as a supplement to inorganic nitrogen. Application of Azospirillum would reduce the dependence on inorganic and organic source of nitrogen. Several phosphate solubilizing bacteria particularly those belonging to genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus posses the ability to bring insoluble phosphate in soil into soluble form by secreting organic acids which lower the ph and bring about dissolution of bound phosphate. Vermicompost is a rich mixture of major and minor plant nutrients. On an average vermicompost contains 3% nitrogen, 1% phosphorus and 1.5% potassium. Vermicompost is an excellent base for establishment of free living and symbiotic microbes. Application of vermicompost increases the total microbial population of the nitrogen fixation bacteria. It gives a quick response compared to ordinary compost or farmyard manure. It also increases the availability of phosphorus and nitrogen and improves microbial action in the soil. The use of vermicompost in place of other organic fertilizer helps to overcome the problem of scarcity of organic fertilizer like FYM. In view of the above consideration of adequate research evidence the study entitled Effect of integrated nutrient management on African marigold ( Tagetes erecta L.) cv. Pusa Narangi was carried out at the Fruit Research Station (Lal baug), Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh with following objectives:

29 28 (1) To study the effect of organic, inorganic and biofertilizers on growth, flower quality and flower yield of marigold. (2) To reduce the inorganic fertilizer dose through organic and biofertilizers for marigold. (3) To find out the suitable dose of chemical fertilizer with biofertilizers and vermicompost for marigold. (4) To study the effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on nutrient content and uptake of marigold. (5) To study the effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on nutrient status of the soil.

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31 30 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The present investigation was carried out to study the Effect of integrated nutrient management on African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) cv. Pusa Narangi It has been established that nutrition plays an important role in the improvement of growth and yield of African marigold crop as stated by Patel (1998), Chauhan et al. (2005b) and Gaur et al. (2008). Continuous attempts are being made to ascertain the proper scheduling of inorganic and organic fertilizer management of floricultural crops. In the overall context of sustainable agriculture, the concept of integrated nutrient management involving the use of inorganic fertilizers, biofertilizers and vermicompost etc. to augment fertilizer use through cheap nutrient sources is gaining attention. Such practices control pollution in part at least caused due to use of high dose of fertilizers. Efforts are therefore has been made to present in this chapter a brief summary of studies carried out at various places, related to present investigation, with special references in floriculture crops. The review has been highlighted under following heads: 2.1 EFFECT OF INORGANIC FERTILIZERS An optimum dose of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is essential for proper vegetative growth, good quality and high yield in flower crops. Nitrogen plays vital role in chlorophyll synthesis and amino acids formation which contribute to the building units of protein, and thereby, growth of the plant. Phosphorus and potassium also occupied an important place amongst the non-renewable input of modern agriculture which is

32 31 constituents of many plant metabolites. Optimum supply of these elements ensures better growth and improves the flower quality Effect of nitrogen Nitrogen encourages vegetative growth, improves green colour in foliage. It tends to govern the utilization of potassium and phosphorus and play an important role in protein assimilation within the plant. On the other hand, it has some harmful effects, such as delay in maturity, weakness of the stems and increase in susceptibility to diseases. Therefore, nitrogen is the most important element limiting the production of flowers because most of the Indian soils are low to medium in nitrogen. Its effect on growth, yield attributes and yield of flowers under various agro-climatic conditions are discussed herewith Effect of nitrogen on growth parameters a. Marigold The effect of foliar fertilization was studied by Rathore et al. (1982). They found that foliar feeding of urea was effective in African marigold. Six applications of 2 per cent urea produced tallest plant ( cm) as compared to no spray ( cm). However, highest number of primary and secondary branches was obtained with four applications of 1 per cent urea at weekly intervals starting from 10 days after transplanting. Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) at Madurai, recorded significantly maximum plant height (68.2 and cm) and number of laterals (13.09 and 25.27) at vegetative and flowering stage, respectively due to addition of highest dose of nitrogen (120 kg ha -1 ) in African marigold cv. MDU-1. Patel (1990) noted increase in growth parameters of marigold with addition of nitrogen from 20 to 80 g m -2. The

33 32 maximum plant height (57.67 and cm), number of primary (10.89 and 12.60) and secondary (21.33 and 27.96) branches were recorded with application highest dose of nitrogen at first and final picking, respectively, and that was at par with 60 g N m -2. Jacques et al. (1992) carried out an experiment on bedding plant, Tagetes patula cv. Honeycomb grown in plastic containers in soilless media. All media were given 0, 100, 200, 300 or 400 mg N per litre at each irrigation. Plant height and width (at 55 days after transplanting) was greatest in plants grown at 400 mg N per litre and had high mortality rates. Avari (1993) in an experiment on Tagetes erecta cv. Lemon at Navsari observed that application of 200 kg N ha -1 recorded maximum plant height (75.71 cm), number of main (10.00) and lateral (18.67) branches and plant spread ( m 2 ). Yadav and Singh (1997) observed that the plant height and spread increased consistently with up to 120 ppm N, whereas number of branches increased with up to 180 ppm N. However, beyond 180 ppm N, growth parameters were adversely affected in African marigold. Dahiya et al. (1998) conducted a greenhouse study during to assess the effect of N (0, 80, 160 and 240 ppm) and P (0, 40, 80 and 120 ppm) on growth, flowering and yield of potted African marigolds grown in a sandy loam soil media. The plant height and number of branches per plant were increased up to 240 ppm N, whereas plant spread decreased beyond 160 ppm N. A field experiment was conducted at Pantnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India, during the winter season and to study the effect of irrigation regimes and N fertilization (0, 75, 150 and 225 kg ha -1 ) in T. minuta, showed that plant height and number of primary branches per plant were significantly highest,

34 33 when the crop was irrigated at 0.4 IW/CPE and fertilized with 225 kg N ha -1. Leaf: stem, flower: leaf and flower: stem ratios, however, followed a decreasing trend with increasing levels of either of the two factors (Ram et al., 1999). Chadha et al. (1999) reported that T. erecta cv. Double Giant plants treated with 60 kg N ha -1 (applied in 2 splits) had the highest number of leaves per plant, branches per plant and greatest plant height at 150 Days After Transplanting (DAT). However, plants treated with 75 kg P2O5 ha -1 had the thickest stems and widest plant spread (East-West) at 150 DAT. Jamod (2001) conducted a field experiment on medium black soils at Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Junagadh during the rabi season of the year with different levels of spacing and nitrogen (50 to 200 kg ha 1 ) in Local Orange cultivar of marigold. At full bloom stage, he recorded significantly maximum plant height (69.07 cm), plant spread (42.22 cm), number of branches (7.07) and stem girth (1.61 cm) at highest (200 kg ha -1 ) level of nitrogen. A field trial was conducted to study the influence of N and P2O5 and pinching on African marigold cv. Crackerjack during the winter season in medium black clayey soil at College of Agriculture, Junagadh. It was revealed that application of N at 200 kg ha -1 significantly increased the plant height (85.79 cm), plant spread (69.53 cm) and number of branches per plant (16.86). However, the plant height remained at par with 150 kg N ha -1 (Joshi and Barad, 2002). Sehrawat et al. (2003) carried out a field experiment on Tagetes erecta cv. African Gaint Double Orange at Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar during the year They observed that the plant height was increased

35 34 significantly with nitrogen application from 0 to 40 g m -2. The plant height was increased consistently upto 30 g N m -2 and the maximum plant height (82.10 cm) was recorded at this level. Moreover, maximum number of branches (17.10) was obtained with 40 g N m -2 that was at par with 30 g N m -2 (16.10). Rathi et al. (2003) carried out a field trial with four different levels of N and methods of irrigation on yield and quality of African marigold and found that nitrogen at 30 g m -2 gave maximum plant height (73.08 cm), diameter of stem girth (2.76 cm), branches per plant (71.30) but there was no significance difference between 30 g and 20 g N m -2. b. Chrysanthemum Elliot and Nelson (1983) found that the effect to N varied with its source. They suggested that NH4 converts to NO3 might stimulate growth by increasing transport of reduced N from roots to the shoots, thus increasing the supply of reduced available N to support growth of shoot meristem. Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) conducted an experiment on annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White at Navsari and revealed that, application of higher dose of N (150 kg ha -1 ) produced significantly maximum plant height (97.89 cm), number of branches (34.00) per plant, plant spread (0.168 m 2 ) and main stem diameter (1.32 cm). Growth characters such as plant height, number of branches per plant and stem girth of chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 were significantly influenced by higher dose of nitrogen (150 kg ha - 1) under North Gujarat conditions (Joshi, 2002). Patel (2004) carried out an experiment at College of Agriculture, Junagadh during on chrysanthemum cv.

36 35 IIHR-6 and revealed that growth characters such as plant height, number of branches per plant and leaf area were significantly improved by highest dose of nitrogen (200 kg ha -1 ) from urea sources as compared to lower nitrogen doses, except number of suckers per plant. c. Carnation Mukhopadhyay and Sadhu (1988), while working on carnation at Calcutta, reported that vegetative growth in terms of plant height and branching was considerably improved by the highest does of N (20 g m -2 ). Devi et al. (2003) reported that highest levels of nitrogen (30 g m -2 ) proved to be effective in increasing height of plant (38.80 cm), number of leaves (144.66) per plant, leaf area ( cm 2 ), diameter of stem (0.80 cm) and number of branches (9.63) per plant as compared to control and other levels of nitrogen in carnation cv. Cabaret. d. Aster Arora and Saini (1976) conducted an experiment at Ludhiana on aster and found that, increasing in the N dose there was a significant increase in the plant height and number of shoots. The response of five levels of N (100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 kg ha -1 ) and four levels of P (0, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha -1 ) was studied in China aster cv. Kamini. The maximum plant height (51.91 cm) and plant spread (21.27 cm) was obtained with highest level of N. Though the levels of N at 200, 250 and 300 kg ha -1 were found at par with each other (Singh and Sangama, 2000). Kumar et al. (2002) conducted a trial on N (0, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 kg ha -1 ) and P (0, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha -1 ) requirement of China aster in factorial RBD at Merrut and found

37 36 that 300 kg N ha -1 gave positive response on plant height (34.80 cm) and number of branches (4.43) as compared to lower levels of nitrogen. The investigation on effect of different levels of nitrogen (150, 200 and 250 kg ha -1 ) and phosphorus (100, 125 and 150 kg ha -1 ) on growth and flower production of China aster cv. Phule Ganesh White was carried out by Gaikwad et al. (2004) at Modibaugh Garden, College of Agriculture, Pune during They revealed that, spread of plant in North-South direction and number of branches per plant was significantly superior with application of 200 kg N ha -1. However, plant height and spread of plant in East-West direction was maximum with the application of 250 kg ha -1 and it was at par with treatment of 200 kg N ha -1. e. Gaillardia Singatkar et al. (1995) at Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Pune in gaillardia cv. Yellow Double reported maximum plant height, number of primary and secondary branches per plant with application of nitrogen at 200 kg ha -1. Similar, results were obtained by Tosar (1989) in gaillardia with application of 200 kg N ha -1 but that was at par with 160 and 120 kg N ha -1. f. Other Flower Crops Bose and Das (1966) while working at Calcutta, reported that among nutrient elements the nitrogen deficiency showed maximum adverse effects, greatly affecting on growth of aster, salvia and zinnia. The effect however, was most marked in salvia, as there was a great reduction in number of branches under the lowest N treatment.

38 37 Bose and Roy (1968) studied nutritional requirement of ornamental plants at Calcutta and reported that, in the case of dianthus, the height of the plant was adversely affected under N starvation. They further reported that low level of N markedly inhibited the branching in cosmos Effect of nitrogen on fresh and dry weight of plant a. Marigold Tsurushima and Date (1971) observed that an application of nitrogen in French marigold raised the total fresh weight of plant. Ravindran et al. (1986) reported that, the increasing nitrogen rate from 0 to 90 kg ha -1, there was corresponding increased in dry weight of plant from 22.9 g to g in marigold. Similarly, Bapusaheb (1981) noted that the dry matter content of stem and leaves markedly increased with the highest level of nitrogen (200 kg ha -1 ) in African marigold. In Tagetes patula cv. Inca Yellow Sun, Jeong et al. (1992b) reported that the ammonium toxicity was observed when 100 per cent of nitrogen was supplied as ammonium-n in solution culture. Similarly, with ammonium-n as the sole source of nitrogen in Tagetes patula cv. Inca Yellow. Jeong and Lee (1992a) observed ammonium related growth suppression symptoms regardless of altered chlorine levels in the nutrient solution, with shoot fresh and dry weight values 50 per cent of those grown with the NH4+NO3 solution. Avari (1993) recorded maximum plant dry weight of Tagetes erecta cv. Lemon at Navsari with addition of 200 kg N ha -1, which was followed by 150 kg N ha -1.

39 38 Jamod (2001) observed that fresh weight ( g) and dry weight (93.44 g) of plant was significantly increased by application of N in marigold cv. Local Orange from 50 to 200 kg ha -1 under Junagadh condition. b. Chrysanthemum Hosoya et al. (1978) noted that the nitrogen deficiency resulted in lower fresh weight in all organs at flowering stage in pot chrysanthemum. In a greenhouse study at California, Schuch et al. (1998) found lower leaf and stem dry mass, less leaf area and N deficient plants with application of 80 mg N per litre of nutrient solution compared with 160 mg N per litre. The highest stem dry mass was produced with 160 mg N per litre in chrysantheumum. Sawwan et al. (1999) reported that highest fresh and dry weight of plant was observed with 50 ppm N as Ca(NO3)2 in chrysanthemum under glasshouse condition. Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed maximum fresh weight ( g) and dry weight ( g) in annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White at 150 kg N ha -1 under Navsari condition of Gujarat. Patel (2004) carried out an experiment at College of Agriculture, Junagadh during on chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 and found that fresh and dry weight of plant was significantly higher at 200 kg N ha -1 through urea sources as compared to lower levels of nitrogen. c. Carnation Magnifico et al. (1986) found that highest fresh weight and dry weight of plants were obtained when fertilizer were applied

40 39 every two weeks to give a total 160, 40 and 80 kg per 1000 m 2 of N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively in carnation. d. Aster Total dry weight of plant decreased significantly as N deficiency increased in aster and zinnia (Bose and Das, 1966) and in dianthus and cosmos (Bose and Roy, 1968). Kozik (1992) in four-year container trial with China aster cv. Alabaster found marked increase in fresh and dry weight of plants due to N application. e. Other Flower Crops Mineral fertilization in Calendula officinalis L. with N, P, K, Ca and Mg had no effect on dry matter of plant (Dovjak and Gromova, 1988) Effect of nitrogen on flowering parameters a. Marigold Arora and Khanna (1986) studied for the effect of N and P on marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) and reported that the application of N upto 40 g m -2 delayed flowering progressively as compared with the flowering in the control, but further increase in the N dose did not exhibit more delay in flowering. They further reported that the delay could be useful for regulating the flower production and to avoid glut in the market. Ravindran et al. (1986) while working for the effect of different levels of N (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha -1 ) on marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) reported that, early flowering and the size of flowers was significantly greater in the higher level of nitrogen compared with that in the lower level of N and control. They further found that the

41 40 highest level of N i.e. 90 kg ha -1 gave maximum size of flower and weight of flower. Sadvilkar (1986) studied the effect of nutrition on French marigold at Dapoli using the four levels of N (50, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha -1 ) during winter season. It was found that the flowering was delayed with increased level of fertilizers and reported that the highest N treatment resulted in late commencement of flowering due to higher vegetative growth in the initial stage. Patel (1990) indicated that weight of single flower (10.22 g), size of flower (8.00 cm) and thickness of flower (3.76 cm) of marigold grown in sandy loam soil of Sardarkrushinagar were improved with application of nitrogen from 20 to 80 g m -2. However, there was no difference between 80 and 60 g N m -2. Whereas, application of nitrogen delayed the number of days for 50 per cent flowering (45.56 days). The earliest flowering (42.11 days) was observed at lower dose of nitrogen (20 g m -2 ). A field trial was conducted to study the effect of N and P2O5 on the yield of marigold grown in the sandy loam soils of Bapatla by Anuradha et al. (1990). They revealed that the flower quality in terms of size of flower, stalk length, weight of single flower, as well as number of ray florets were significantly influenced by N application from 0 to 90 kg ha -1. The number of days required for 50 per cent flowering and vase life was reduced with increasing levels of nitrogen. Jacques et al. (1992) carried out an experiment on bedding plant, Tagetes patula cv. Honeycomb grown in plastic containers in soil less media. All media were irrigated with 0, 100, 200, 300 or 400 mg N per liter initially and at each irrigation. Shelf life was longest when irrigated with 100 mg N per liter.

42 41 Avari (1993) in an experiment on Tagetes erecta cv. Lemon at Navsari revealed that application of 200 kg N ha -1 was recorded maximum flower size (5.99 cm), flower bud diameter (1.43 cm), peduncle length (4.13 cm) and girth (0.23 cm) and number of florets which was followed by 150 kg N ha -1. Dahiya et al. (1998) conducted a greenhouse study with N (0, 80, 160 and 240 ppm) and P (0, 40, 80 and 120 ppm) on potted African marigold under sandy loam soil. The number of days to 50 per cent flowering was significantly reduced with increasing N. Chadha et al. (1999) reported that the earliest bud initiation was recorded in T. erecta cv. Double Giant plants treated with 30 kg N ha -1. Yadav et al. (2000) carried out a pot culture trial on sandy loam soil during winter season of 1995 at Hisar showed that floral characters of African marigold like average flower size (7.7 cm), average flower weight (11.8 g) and pedicel length (7.3 cm) were recorded maximum at 180 ppm N level. Beyond this level, significant adverse effect of N (300 ppm) was recorded on these characters. Number of days taken for first flowering and 50 per cent flowering was reduced with increasing levels of N from 50 to 200 kg ha -1 in African marigold cv. Local Orange and the earliest flowering was observed at higher dose of nitrogen by Jamod (2001). He also reported improvement in flower qualities in terms of diameter of flower (6.37 cm) and number of flowers per 50 g weight (9.75) at same dose. A study was conducted in Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India during to determine the effect of nitrogen (0, 10, 20 and 30 g m -2 ) and phosphorus (0, 10 and 20 g m -2 ) on marigold (Tagetes

43 42 erecta L. cv. African Yellow) flower production by Mohanty et al. (2002). They revealed that with increase in nitrogen rate, the days to flowering was prolonged from days (without nitrogen) to days (30 g N m -2 ). A study with marigold cv. African Tall was undertaken in Pune, Maharashtra during summer season of 1996 by Jadhav et al. (2002) and revealed earliest buttoning (40.40 days) and flower opening (8.75 days) in control (without nitrogen), while late buttoning (43.66 days) and late flower opening (10.56 days) in the higher level of N (100 kg ha -1 ). The days from flower opening to harvest (10.33 days) and duration of flowering (46.64 days) were maximum in highest level of N and minimum in the control (8.30 and days, respectively). Joshi and Barad (2002) while working on African marigold cv. Crackerjack at Junagadh showed that increase in N application rates upto 150 kg ha -1 significantly increased the diameter of flower (7.05 cm) and the number of ray florets per flower (132.98). The number of ray florets can be considered as good indicators of flower quality. They further showed that vase life of cut flower was decreased with increasing levels of nitrogen and the longer (9.23 days) vase life of cut flowers was recorded at lower level of N (50 kg ha -1 ) as compared with higher level of N. The commencement of flowering was significantly delayed by the application of nitrogen. The earliest flowering (81.94 days) was observed with lower dose of N (50 kg ha -1 ), which however, was at par with 100 kg N ha -1. This can be attributed to the effect of nitrogen in prolongation of vegetative growth of plant. Desai et al. (2002) conducted a field trial to optimize time of pinching (20, 30 and 40 DAT) and nitrogen (20, 30 and 40 g m -2 ) requirement in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi and revealed that

44 43 30 g m -2 significantly increased the number of flowers per plant, flower size, flower yield and earliness in flowering when pinching was done at 30 DAT. Sehrawat et al. (2003) reported that the flowering was significantly delayed by application of nitrogen in African marigold cv. African Gaint Double Orange at Hisar. Number of days to first flower bud initiation (54.19) was significantly increased by 40 g N m -2 over control (46.82) and lower levels of nitrogen. Number of days to 50 per cent flowering was maximum (101.80) at 40 g N m -2 that was at par with 30 g N m -2 (99.91) over control as well as lower levels of nitrogen. They also reported significantly longest duration of flowering (66.97 days) at 40 g N m -2 than the rest of the nitrogen levels and control. Rathi (2003) carried out a field trial with four different levels of N and methods of irrigation on yield and quality of African marigold and found that nitrogen at 20 g m -2 increased weight of individual flower (7.60 g), flowering duration and vase life. Whereas, nitrogen at 30 g m -2 produced only early flower initiation. Bosma et al. (2003) noted that, flower diameter was larger (5.7 cm) in direct seeded African marigold receiving nitrogen than control (5.1 cm) when grown in fine sandy loam soils. b. Chrysanthemum Gilly (1977) observed that deficiency of N in chrysanthemum induced small flowers and short pedicel. Hosoya et al. (1978) reported in water culture experiment on chrysanthemum, that effect of N application was maximum at the initial stage of growth. They further reported that the deficiency of N at the vegetative growth stage delayed flowering.

45 44 Barman and Pal (1999) reported appreciable improvement in the vegetative and flowering attributes of chrysanthemum cv. Chandrama with application of 30 g N m -2. Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) showed that the application of highest dose of N (150 kg ha-1) recorded minimum days for appearance of flower bud (28.11 days) and opening of flower (9.00 days). They also revealed that 150 kg N ha -1 produced maximum diameter of bud (1.07 cm), size of flower (6.71 cm), thickness of flower (1.33 cm), peduncle length (19.67 cm), peduncle girth (0.55 cm) and number of florets (88.67) in annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White under Navsari condition of Gujarat. However, vase life of cut flower was significantly decreased with increased nitrogen application rate from 0 to 150 kg ha -1. Joshi (2002) reported that flowering and quality characters such as size of the flower, fresh weight of flowers, appearance of first flower bud were significantly affected at 150 kg N ha -1 in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 under North Gujarat conditions. However, vase life of cut flowers decreased with increasing levels of nitrogen from 50 to 150 kg ha -1. Patel (2004) carried out an experiment at College of Agriculture, Junagadh during on chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 and found that 250 kg N ha -1 through urea sources improved flowering attributes with respect to duration of flowering, diameter of flower, pedicel length and weight of 10 flowers as compared to lower nitrogen. c. Carnation Bose and Roy (1968) in dianthus, was observed shorter duration of flowering and reduction in the size of flower due to deficiency of nitrogen.

46 45 d. Aster Bose and Das (1966) studied the nutrition of ornamental plants at the garden of the Royal Agri-Horticultural Society of India, Calcutta and showed that short duration of flower and great reduction in the size of aster, salvia and zinnia flowers due to the deficiency of N. Singh and Sangama (2000) reported maximum length of flower stalk (27.27 cm) and number of flowers per plant (35.22) in China aster cv. Kamini on sandy loan soil at 300 kg N ha -1 which was at par with 200 and 250 kg N ha -1. Rest of the parameters i.e. number of days taken for 100 per cent flowering, diameter of flower and weight of 5 flowers and post harvest quality of cut flowers were not significantly influenced by graded levels of N. Kumar et al. (2002) at Merut, conducted trial on N (0, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 kg ha -1 ) and P (0, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha -1 ) requirement of China aster in factorial RBD and found that 300 kg N ha -1 gave positive response towards flower diameter (5.13 cm) and duration of flowering (37.45 days). However, minimum number of days (52.36) to first flower bud appearance was recorded, where no nitrogen was applied. e. Gaillardia Tosar (1989) observed that number of days taken for flowering was reduced with increased levels of nitrogen (200 kg ha -1 ) in gaillardia, but there was no difference between 200, 160 and 120 kg N. However, significant increase in size of flower and weight of single flower was found at highest dose of nitrogen. Singatkar et al. (1995) carried out an investigation at Department of Horticulture, Agriculture College, Pune to study the effect of different levels of N, P and K on growth and flower production of gaillardia cv. Yellow Double and their results indicated that

47 46 nitrogen (200 kg ha -1 ) had significant and beneficial effects on days to opening of flower bud, total duration of flowering, size of flower and length of flower stalk. But keeping quality of flower was less under higher levels of nitrogen Effect of nitrogen on flower yield a. Marigold Rathore et al. (1982) obtained highest flower yield (6311 kg ha -1 ), greatest number and weight of flowers in African marigold with four application of 1 per cent urea at weekly intervals starting from 10 days after transplanting. Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) showed that nitrogen application from 0 to 120 kg ha -1 significantly increased number of flowers (152.2) and yield (53.41 t ha -1 ) of African marigold cv. MDU-1. An experiment was carried out by Patel (1990) in sandy loam soil of Sardarkrushinagar on African marigold during 1990 and found that application of nitrogen (20 to 80 g m -2 ) increased the flower yield with respect to highest number of flowers (31.04), yield per plant ( g) and yield per hectare ( q) at highest level of nitrogen. However, there was no difference between 80 and 60 g N m -2. Anuradha et al. (1988b) reported that the number of flowers per plant increased significantly with increasing fertility level of N from 0 to 90 kg ha -1. They also showed that flower yield (q ha -1 ) significantly increased with each increment in the dose of nitrogen. A field experiment comparing four rates of nitrogen application viz., 0, 90, 120 and 150 kg N ha -1 and three-plant spacing was conducted at Nagpur on African marigold during kharif

48 47 season (Belorkar et al., 1992). The greatest flower diameter (6.52 cm) and flower yield (83.92 q ha -1 ) were obtained with 90 kg N ha -1 when spacing was 45 x 30 cm. However, flower quality and yield reduced at higher rates of nitrogen application. Avari (1993) conducted an experiment on African marigold cv. Lemon at Navsari and found that addition of 200 kg N ha -1 was recorded maximum yield of flowers per plant ( g), number of flowers per plant (35.21), fresh (5.33 g) and dry (1.01 g) weight of single flower which was followed by 150 kg N ha -1. Field experiments were carried out during 2 successive seasons with 0, 60 or 100 kg N fertilizer (ammonium nitrate) per feddan, in T. patula by El-Saeid et al. (1996). Yield characters, i.e. number of flowers per plant and flower fresh and dry weight, were greatest with 60 kg N per feddan divided between 2 applications, whereas, the yield was highest with 100 kg N per feddan divided between 2 applications. [1 feddan = 0.42 ha]. Yadav and Singh (1997) observed that the fresh flower yield increased up to 180 ppm N, per hectare application beyond it the yield was adversely affected in African marigold. Dahiya et al. (1998) reported that, the number of flowers per plant was increased with application of highest dose of nitrogen (240 ppm). In a pot culture study on sandy loam soil at Hisar by Yadav et al. (2000) opined that a progressive increase in number of flowers (25.6) and flower yield per plant (301.2 g) was observed with increasing levels of N upto 180 ppm N, thereafter significant decline followed in comparison to preceding level of N. The number of flowers (16.9) and flower yield (223.2 g) per plant increased and it was maximum at 180 ppm N level over control indicating 180 ppm N level was best for obtaining maximum number of flowers and

49 48 flower yield of African marigold. Further addition of N did not help in more production of flowers, but caused reduction in flower yield. Jamod (2001) showed that application of nitrogen at highest level (200 kg ha -1 ) recorded maximum number of flowers per plant (73.21), yield per plant ( g), yield per plot (9.357 kg) and yield per hectare ( T) in Local Orange cultivar during rabi season. Mohanty et al. (2002), in African marigold cv. African Yellow recommended 20 g N m -2 for maximum yield of flowers at Bhubaneswar condition during Jadhav et al. (2002) showed that number of flowers per plant (66.75), weight of hundred flowers ( g), weight of flowers per plant (0.33 kg), number of pickings (6.51) and weight of flowers per hectare ( q) were highest under highest level of nitrogen (100 kg ha -1 ) treatment and lowest in the control at Pune, Maharashtra in African Tall Cultivar of marigold. Joshi and Barad (2002) observed that application of nitrogen at 150 kg ha -1 produced significantly highest number of flowers per plant (62.16) as well as the highest flower yield ( q ha -1 ) in African marigold cv. Cracker Jack. Further increase in N rate caused reduction in flower yield. Sehrawat et al. (2003) recorded significantly higher number of flowers at 30 g N (31.86 plant -1 ) and 40 g N m -2 (31.40 plant -1 ) than control and rest of nitrogen treatments in African marigold cv. African Gaint Double Orange at Hisar during the year They further reported that flower yield was maximum ( g plant -1 ) at 40 g N m -2, which was at par with 30 g N m -2 ( g plant -1 ) treatment. While, control recorded only g flowers per plant.

50 49 Rathi et al. (2003) carried out a field trial with four different levels of N and methods of irrigation on yield and quality of African marigold and found that, number of flowers per plant (43.10) and flower yield per plant ( g) were maximum at 30 g N m -2. The increase in level of N enhances the vegetative growth especially number of shoots per plant resulting to higher number of flowers per plant. b. Chrysanthemum A field experiment was conducted on annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White at Navsari (Gujarat) by Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) and concluded that N at 150 kg ha -1 recorded significantly maximum number of flowers per plant (156.67), flower yield per plant ( g), flower yield per hectare ( kg), fresh weight (2.512 g) and dry weight (0.521 g) of flower. Patel (2004) found that yield characters such as number of flowers per plant, weight of flowers per plant and yield of flowers per hectare were significantly highest with application of 250 kg N ha -1 through urea in medium black soil of Junagadh during in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6. c. Carnation Medina (1992) observed that N deficiency symptoms consisted of generalized chlorosis with poor growth and short internodes in carnation cv. Tanga under hydroponic culture and P deficiency was seen as darkening of the foliage. N deficiency reduced flower production by 40 per cent and dry matter production by 30 per cent. Calyx splitting was greatest with K deficiency.

51 50 Boztok et al. (1996) reported N:K ratio of 1:1 to be optimum for maximum yield and quality of carnation cv. Scorpio in terms of stems and flowers per plant and flower diameter. d. Aster Kumar et al. (2002) recorded maximum number of flowers per plant (35.22) in China aster with addition of 300 kg N ha -1 as compared with lower levels of nitrogen. e. Gaillardia Tosar (1989) recorded highest yield and number of flowers per plant in gaillardia with 200 kg N ha -1 but there was no significant difference between 200, 160 and 120 kg N. Singatkar et al. (1995) carried out an investigation at Pune to study the effect of different levels of N, P and K on growth and flower production of gaillardia cv. Yellow Double. Results indicated that, nitrogen (200 kg ha -1 ) had significantly maximum flowers per plant and per hectare as well as weight of flowers per plant Effect of nitrogen on nutrient composition and uptake a. Marigold Ingawale (1979) recorded higher uptake of N and P with the application of N in African marigold. Anuradha et al. (1988a) showed that, content and uptake of N and P2O5 at 30, 60 and 90 DAT increased significantly with increasing levels of N from zero to 90 kg ha -1. They also reported that application of N and P2O5 significantly increased the content and uptake of K in plant.

52 51 Tolman et al. (1990) conducted experiment with 20, 50, 80 or 110 mg N per liter to 30, 35, 40, 45 or 50 days old Tagetes erecta cv. Inca Gold seedlings growing in 500 ml plastic pots containing a 1:1 peat:perlite (v/v) growing medium. Nutrient levels in solution in the growing medium were determined 6 h after the N liquid feed was applied. Older/larger, container grown plants absorbed more N, P, and K from the medium solution than younger/smaller plants. Also, plants>40-days-old absorbed at least 88 per cent of the solution N regardless of N application rate. N absorption, regardless of plant age, increased as N application rates increased, implying that even though total N absorption increases with plant age/size, nutrient levels in the medium solution for optimal growth and nutrient uptake may be similar regardless of plant size. The source of nitrogen also influenced the nutrient absorption in marigold. According to Reddy and Mills (1991), when N was supplied, only as nitrate-nitrogen in hydroponic culture, in both commercially important species of marigold i.e. Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula, manganese uptake was enhanced, whereas, ammonium-nitrogen reduced it. T. patula accumulated higher Mn concentrations in roots when only nitrate-n was supplied. Ammonium-N shifted the Mn accumulation to the shoots. Growth suppression of both species was observed when only nitrate-n was supplied with 100 mg per litre of Mn. El-Jaoual and Cox (1998) showed that total N uptake by marigold cv. First Lady was greater during the first 50 days after transplanting with maximum N uptake during the period 30 to 50 days when plants were grown in solution culture using solutions supplying 120 mg each of NO3-N and NH4-N. The total N absorbed by marigold during the experiment (70 days) was 1.1 g N per plant.

53 52 Yadav et al. (1999) reported that leaf N content of winter season grown African marigold in red sandy loam soil during and increased consistently with N rate from 0 to 300 ppm but concentration of P and K were highest at the 180 ppm N application rate. Suzuki et al. (1999) showed that the specific absorption rate of ammonium-n (g N per kg dry weight per day) was decreased with an increase in plant dry weight but increased with an increase in plant N content in Tagetes patula. Jamod (2001) reported that the leaf nitrogen content of marigold cv. Local Orange was increased significantly from to and to per cent with increasing the levels of nitrogen from 50 to 200 kg ha -1 at 60 and 90 days after transplanting (DAT), respectively. However, the significantly reduction was observed in leaf N content at 60 DAT as compared to 30 DAT. b. Chrysanthemum Kazimirova (1970), in outdoor fertilizer trials with two cultivars of chrysanthemum, the analysis of the most productive plants of cv. Papakha showed that N:P:K ratio was 43.7:14.6:41.7 and those of cv. Moonlight Serenade, ratio was 29.5:11.1:59.4. Hoffmann and Cottenie (1976) showed that chrysanthemum, poinsettia and saintpaulia were grown in pots in peat and peat:clay (6:4) media. Various rates and frequencies of NPK fertilizer were applied as solid basal dressing and liquid top dressing. Nutrient uptake and growth were both closely correlated with the amount of nutrients added, but not with nutrient content of the substrate. A sufficiently high basal dressing obviated the need for frequent top dressings.

54 53 Jaivenois and Neumann (1982) determined the contents of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in roots, stems, leaves, buds and flowers of Chrysanthemum indicum on six sampling dates at approximately 30 days interval. The total nutrient content increased in relation to plant age, while nutrient concentrations were stable after 30 days following an initial rise. The rate of nutrient uptake was greatest during the first 60 days, declining thereafter. The greatest amounts of N, K, Mg and Ca were found in the leaves, while P was most abundant in the stem. A trial was conducted at Mohanpur, West Bengal, during and to investigate leaf composition at different stages of chrysanthemum cv. Chandrama. In general, Macro and micronutrient concentrations gradually decreased from the vegetative to the flowering stage (Barman and Pal, 1996). Joshi (2002) showed that, higher dose of nitrogen (150 kg ha -1 ) significantly increased the uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6. c. Carnation Removal of nutrients by carnation plants was studied by Jhon and Arora (1978) they analysed the leaves at two stages (vegetative and peak flowering). Removal of N, P and K was found in the ratio of 1:0.007:1.04. The effect of N application in leaf N content showed that with the increase in N dose from 20 to 40 g m - 2, nitrogen and phosphorus content was increased significantly. Further, increase in N dose, however, did not increase the N content. The application of N in three splits enhanced the uptake of N than other treatments. It was further reported that potassium content at vegetative and flowering stage was significantly reduced by N rates and their split applications. Potassium content of leaves

55 54 was increased at peak flowering stage and the increase was similar to vegetative stage. Carnation cv. Crimson was supplied with three doses of N (0, 10 and 20 g m -2 ) and three doses each of P2O5 and K2O (0, 20 and 40 g m -2 ) in a factorial nutritional trial conducted by Mukhopadhyay and Sadhu (1988). In which the leaf analysis results for N and K content indicated that, the leaf N was significantly affected by the nitrogen fertilization both at vegetative and flowering stages, the leaf N level increased linearly and significantly with the increasing levels of N fertilization. There was a considerable reduction in leaf N content in the flowering stage compared to vegetative stage. This may be due to utilization of N during flowering. The foliar K level increased only upto 20 g m -2 of added K2O and further increase in supply of K was not reflected in the composition of the leaf. Further, it has been noted that, high N rate was associated with low concentration of K in the foliage. In a greenhouse study in Turkey, Kaplan (1993) found that increased ammonium-n rates did not significantly affect flower yield of carnation cv. Elsy, but increased individual flower fresh weight, stem length and total leaf N; while increasing ammonium-n had no effect on flower yield or other characteristics of carnation cv. Pallas. It was concluded that optimum rate of ammonium-n application was 15 per cent N-solution for Elsy and 6 per cent N- solution for Pallas carnation. Foliar application of nitrogen at higher level (1500 ppm) resulted in maximum NPK content of leaves (2.241, 0.266, and per cent, respectively) in carnation cv. Impala. A positive linear relationship was found between N content of leaves and days to bud formation, days to flowering, flower size, plant height, stem length, stem strength, and flower yield. (Verma 2003).

56 Effect of phosphorus Phosphorus is one of the major elements, limiting the growth, quality and yield of flowers. Joiner (1967) evaluated the need of P during the period of initiation and development of chrysanthemum flower. An increase in P levels from low to medium resulted in increased stem length and flower diameter. He also observed increased potassium absorption with more levels of phosphorus. A reduction in size of new leaves is one of the first symptoms of P deficiency, although leaf colour remains green. As the deficiency progressed, growth of main stem slowed down and finally stopped Effect of phosphorus on growth parameters a. Marigold Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) at Madurai, observed significantly more plant height (59.8 and cm) and number of laterals (10.34 and 20.78) at vegetative and flowering stage, respectively with application of phosphorus at 90 kg ha -1 in African marigold cv. MDU-1. Dahiya et al. (1998) conducted a greenhouse studies during the year to assess the effect of N (0, 80, 160 and 240 ppm) and P (0, 40, 80 and 120 ppm) on growth, flowering and yield of potted African marigolds in a sandy loam soil. Increasing P rates significantly improved the growth parameters and yield of marigold. Joshi and Barad (2002) carried out an experiment on African marigold cv. Crackerjack in medium black clayey soil during the year (winter) at College of Agriculture, Junagadh and reported that phosphorus showed no significant

57 56 influence on plant growth characters except plant spread, which was significantly, maximum (62.21 cm) with higher level (100 kg ha - 1) of phosphorus. b. Chrysanthemum Joshi (2002) showed that phosphorus played a significant role in improving growth of chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 plant in terms of plant height, number of branches per plant and stem girth at higher levels of phosphorus (100 kg ha -1 ). c. Carnation Devi et al. (2003) reported that highest levels of phosphorus (20 g m -2 ) increased only plant height (40.89 cm) as compared to control and lower levels of phosphorus in carnation cv. Cabaret under Hisar condition. d. Aster Singh and Sangama (2000) reported that vegetative growth of China aster cv. Kamini in terms of plant height and plant spread was not influenced by graded levels of P on sandy loam soil. Kumar et al. (2002) conducted a field trial on N (0, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 kg ha -1 ) and P (0, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha -1 ) requirement of China aster in factorial RBD at Merrut and found that, among the different doses of phosphorus, 200 kg P2O5 ha -1 was found maximum for plant height (35.29 cm), number of branches (4.43). The investigation on effect of different levels of nitrogen (150, 200 and 250 kg ha -1 ) and phosphorus (100, 125 and 150 kg ha -1 ) on growth and flower production of China aster cv. Phule Ganesh White was carried out by Gaikwad et al. (2004) at Pune. They recorded significantly maximum plant height, spread of plant in East-West and North-South direction (99.25, and 30.06

58 57 cm, respectively) with the application of 150 kg ha - 1. e. Other Flower Crops Sigedar et al. (1991) found that plant height, number of branches and spread of plant were significantly increased with higher levels of phosphorus (50 kg ha -1 ) relative to lower levels of phosphorus (25 kg ha -1 ) and control in Calendula officinalis Linn. during kharif season of the year in medium black soil Effect of phosphorus on fresh and dry weight of plant a. Marigold Anuradha et al. (1988b) reported that the total dry matter production at different stage of growth was found to increase significantly with each increase in the level of N and P2O5 in marigold. Adequate supply of N and P2O5 to the plant resulted in the development of a good canopy (source) in the initial stages of growth and supported the reproductive parts (sink) in the later stages of crop growth. In green house study, Broschat and Moore (2000) showed that shoot and to a much lesser extent, root dry weight increased for container grown plants as weekly P fertilizer rate increased from 0 to 8 mg per pot. With the increase from 8 to 64 mg P per pot, neither roots nor shoots of most species showed any additional growth including Tagetes erecta cv. Inca Gold Effect of phosphorus on flowering parameters a. Marigold A field trial was conducted to study the effect of N and P2O5 on the yield of marigold grown in the sandy loam soils by

59 58 Anuradha et al. (1990) and showed that size of flower, stalk length, weight of single flower as well as number of ray florets were significantly influenced by P2O5 application from 0 to 90 kg ha -1. However, The number of days required for 50 per cent flowering was reduced with increasing levels of P2O5 whereas, increasing levels of P2O5 had no significant effect on vase life of flowers. Joshi and Barad (2002) recorded that application of 100 kg P2O5 ha -1 produced significantly highest flower diameter (6.68 cm) and maximum number of ray florets per flower (124.92) than 50 kg P2O5 ha -1 in African marigold cv. Crackerjack. They also reported that different levels of phosphorus failed to influence the earliness of flowering and vase life of cut flowers. b. Chrysanthemum Joshi (2002) reported that flowering and quality of flowers (appearance of first flower bud, size of flower, fresh weight of flower and vase life of cut flower) was improved significantly with higher dose of phosphorus (100 kg ha -1 ) than lower dose (50 kg P2O5 ha -1 ) in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 under North Gujarat conditions. c. Carnation Roelants (1973) recorded increased fresh weight of flowers and produced greater number of petals per flower with increased levels of P in carnation cv. Scania Red. d. Aster Floral parameters of China aster cv. Kamini like number of days taken to 100 per cent flowering, flower diameter, stalk length of flower, number of flowers per plant, weight of 5 flowers and post harvest life of cut flower were not affected due to different levels of phosphorus (Singh and Sangama, 2000).

60 59 Among the different doses of phosphorus, 200 kg P2O5 ha -1 proved effective towards number of days to first flower bud appearance (54.05 days) and flower diameter but maximum duration of flowering (36.99 days) was observed where no P2O5 was applied in China aster at Merrut condition (Kumar et al., 2002). Gaikwad et al. (2004) at Modibaugh Garden, College of Agriculture, Pune during found that flower diameter and duration of flowering were significantly increased with 125 kg phosphorus application per hectare in China aster cv. Phule Ganesh White. e. Gaillardia Singatkar et al. (1995) carried out an investigation at Pune to study the effect of different levels of N, P and K on growth and flower production of gaillardia cv. Yellow Double and results indicated that phosphorus (125 kg ha -1 ) had significant and beneficial effects on size of flower and length of flower stalk over control but keeping quality of flowers was less under higher levels of phosphorus Effect of phosphorus on flower yield a. Marigold Watanable et al. (1984) reported that growth rate in French marigold increased steadily with increasing P concentration from 1.1 to 11.3 ppm. The number of flower buds and florets increased in proportion to P levels and P concentration increased with plant growth rate. Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) studied the effects of nitrogen at 0, 80 and 120 kg ha -1, phosphorus at 0, 90 and 120 kg ha -1 and with spraying of ascorbic acid at two intervals. The results revealed that application of phosphorus at 90 kg ha -1 recorded

61 60 significantly maximum number of flowers (146.7) and yield (43.92 t ha -1 ) of African marigold. Anuradha et al. (1990) observed that the number of flowers was increased significantly with fertility level of P2O5 from 0 to 90 kg ha -1 and also found significantly increased in flower yield (q ha -1 ) with each increment in the dose of phosphorus. Dahiya et al. (1998) reported that increasing P rates from 0 to 120 ppm significantly improved the yield of African marigold in greenhouse pot experiment. Sahoo (1999) reported that with increase in P level in saline soil, there was an increase in number of flower buds and flowers per plant in marigold. Mohanty et al. (2002) conducted an experiment at Bhubaneswar ( ) to determine the effect of nitrogen (0, 10, 20 and 30 g m -2 ) and phosphorus (0, 10 and 20 g m -2 ) on African marigold (cv. African Yellow) flower production and observed that the highest number of flowers was recorded upon treatment with 20 g P m -2 (34.56 per plant and per plot). A pot experiment was conducted on marigold cv. Pusa Narangi during the year at Hisar by Parkash et al. (2002b) in chloride dominated saline soil. They revealed that yield parameters like average number of flower buds per plant (12.81), number of flower per plant (9.48), size of flower (5.14 cm) and weight of fresh flower per plant (88.44 g) were increased with increasing phosphorus levels from 0 to 90 ppm. Different levels of phosphorus failed to cause significant influence on production of number of flowers per plant, however, significantly maximum flower yield ( q ha -1 ) and fresh weight of flowers ( g) per plant was recorded at higher level of

62 61 P2O5 (100 kg ha -1 ) in African marigold cv. Crackerjack (Joshi and Barad, 2002). b. Chrysanthemum The best plant growth and the highest yields of flowers and roots were obtained in soils containing mg P2O5 per 100 g (Kato and Takei, 1989). In the soils with mg P2O5 per 100 g, chlorosis, resembling that caused by Fe deficiency, was observed in the middle and upper leaves during the vegetative growth stage, which however, lessened after flower bud development. This chlorosis was due to reduction in the concentration of active Fe in leaves by high P. Excess P also caused root browning, rotting and reduced root activity. They recommended an upper limit of 300 mg per 100 g available P. c. Aster Kumar et al. (2002) at Merrut observed maximum number of flowers per plant (31.11) with highest dose of phosphorus (200 kg ha -1 ) in China aster. Gaikwad et al. (2004) reported that yield in terms of number of flowers per plot and per hectare and weight of flowers per hectare were significantly increased with application of phosphorus at 125 kg ha -1 as compared with 100 kg ha -1, while it was at par with the application of 150 kg ha -1 in China aster cv. Phule Ganesh White. d. Gaillardia Singatkar et al. (1995) carriedout an investigation at College of Agriculture, Pune to study the effect of different levels of N, P and K on growth and flower production of gaillardia cv. Yellow Double and results indicated that phosphorus (125 kg ha -1 ) had

63 62 significant and beneficial effects on the yield in terms of number and weight of flowers per plant and per hectare over control. e. Other Flower Crops El-Gengaihi et al. (1982) found after two-year trial, that P fertilization in the form of calcium superphosphate (200 kg per fadden) increased the yield of Calendula (1 fadden = 0.42 ha). Sigedar et al. (1991) while working on Calendula officinalis Linn. during (kharif) in medium black soil for studying the effects of different levels of N, P and K on growth and yield and observed phosphorus application significantly increased number and weight of flowers per plant and yield (q ha -1 ) and all these characters found maximum at highest levels of phosphorus (50 kg ha -1 ) Effect of phosphorus on nutrient composition and uptake a. Marigold Ingawale (1979) recorded higher uptake of N and P with the application of P in African marigold. The investigation was carriedout at the Agricultural College Orchard, Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh) during with different levels of N and P2O5 on marigold by Anuradha et al. (1988a). The results of plant analysis made for N and P2O5 at 30, 60 and 90 DAT showed that the content and uptake of both increased significantly with increasing levels of P2O5 from zero to 90 kg ha -1. Parkash et al. (2002a) conducted a pot experiment at Hisar on marigold cv. Pusa Narangi in chloride dominated saline soil during They observed that significant increase in nitrogen content of the leaves at all the levels of phosphorus (0-120 ppm). Nitrogen content was also increased proportionately

64 63 more when P was added in higher saline soil compared to the low saline or control. They further reported that addition of phosphorus from 0 to 120 ppm, in general, significantly increased the phosphorus and potassium content of leaves (at flowering) all levels of salinity. b. Chrysanthemum Phosphorus application at higher rate (100 kg ha -1 ) increased the nitrogen and phosphorus uptake significantly compared with lower levels of phosphorus (50 kg ha -1 ), but failed to increase the uptake of potassium in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 plant (Joshi, 2002). c. Carnation Mukhopadhyay and Sadhu (1988) supplied carnation cv. Crimson with three doses of N (0, 10 and 20 g m -2 ) and three doses each of P2O5 and K2O (0, 20 and 40 g m -2 ) and the leaf analysis indicated that the P content of the leaf increased with increasing doses of P2O5 but the increase was not as pronounced as in the case of nitrogen Effect of potash Potassium is also an essential nutrient for proper growth and flower quality of chrysanthemum. Kazimirova (1975) determined K requirement in chrysanthemum and observed that with vigorous growth, requirement of this nutrient is increased and remains high till flowering. Potassium is necessary for many plant functions including carbohydrate metabolism, enzyme activation, osmotic regulation and efficient use of water, N uptake and protein synthesis and translocation of assimilates.

65 64 Marginal browning and reduction of leaf size are the characteristic deficiency symptoms of K nutrient. Flowering is delayed and keeping quality gets impaired Effect of potash on growth parameters a. Marigold Saud and Sarmah (2002) at Karimganj, Assam conducted a trial on French marigold and reported that plant height was increased with increasing the levels of NPK. Plant height was found maximum at 150 kg each of N, P and K. b. Chrysanthemum Johnson (1975) observed significant increment in overall growth of various chrysanthemum cultivars of summer and autumn planted crop with the application of potassium in combination with nitrogen. Kumar et al. (1982) conducted a trial for two years on soil with medium to high available N and low P and K. NPK were applied at 20:40-120:20 kg/ha and it was found that plant height and plant spread were greatest at 20:120:20 kg/ha. Samoilenko (1983) recommended optimum fertilizer rate of 80 kg N, 160 kg P2O5 and 80 kg K2O/ha for good plant growth. Strojny (1982) observed that good plant growth and flower production were obtained with application of N at 5 g/m 2 and K2O at 24 g/m 2. Chezhiyan et al. (1986) studied that highest increase in plant height during both the seasons were observed under N:P:K at 20:20:20 g/m 2 in chrysanthemum. Singh (1986) stated that spraying the solution of urea + potassium nitrate + dihydrogen ammonium phosphate (6:4:1) at fortnightly intervals on chrysanthemum gave more plant height. Mostafa (1996) conducted a greenhouse pot trial during the year at the Sabhbaia

66 65 Horticulture Research station in Alexandria, Egypt on chrysanthemum cv. Wilson s White. The plants were given N and K three weeks after final transplanting and found that application of N and K at 9.6 g/plant significantly improved the plant height. Baboo and Sharma (1997) carried out an experiment in the year at Amar Singh College, Lakhoti to determine the effects of K fertilizer (0, 80 or 160 kg/ha) on the growth of Chrysanthemum coronarium cv. Nivea and stated that with increasing the rate of K, the increase in plant height and number of primary branches were observed. De and Dhiman (1998) at Tripura studied the effect of potash on growth of chrysanthemum cv. Chandrama and recommended that application of 200 kg K2O/ha was the optimum dose for growth. Joshi (2005) conducted an experiment at College of Agriculture, Junagadh during the year and on chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 and Shyamal with 100 and 150 kg K2O/ha. He observed that effect of potash was failed to influence all of growth parameters. c. Carnation Mukhopadhyay and Sadhu (1988) reported that in carnation cv. Crimson, K has negligible effect on plant height and number of branches. d. Gaillardia Singatkar et al. (1995) in gaillardia var. Lorenziana at Kolhapur observed that the application of 125 kg potassium per hectare was comparatively superior for growth as compared to other treatments of K at early stage.

67 66 e. Other Flower Crops Sekar et al. (1995) carried out a trial on gerbera at Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Coimbatore. They tested the three levels of each of nitrogen and potassium viz., 100, 200 and 300 mg per week and their factorial combinations and found that application of K2O at 200 mg showed maximum effect for growth characters like number of leaves and leaf area. Gurav et al. (2002) tried three levels of N (10, 15 and 20 g/m 2 ) and two levels each of P and K (10 and 20 g/m 2 ) in gerbera and found that highest levels of nitrogen individually resulted in significantly maximum plant height followed by highest level of phosphorus and potassium Effect of potash on flowering parameters a. Marigold Saud and Sarmah (2002) observed that fertilizer dose of NPK at 100 kg/ha each was superior to other three levels in terms of yield per hectare ( q/ha) in French marigold. b. Chrysanthemum Komosa (1978) studied a pot experiment on peat substance in which K was applied at g/kg and N at 0-3 g/kg and recommended optimum rates of K2O ( g/kg). He further observed that deficiency or excess K2O reduced the flowering period. Strojny (1982) through a three years trial on N at g/m 2 and K2O at 2-24 g/m 2 in various combinations applied every two or four weeks. The recommended treatment for flower production and economy of labour was N at 5 g/m 2 applied monthly plus K2O at 24 g/m 2 as a single dose.

68 67 Kumar et al. (1982) tested NPK in two years trials and found that flower yield was greatest at 20:120:20 NPK/ha. Chezhiyan et al. (1986) conducted a field trial for two years applying N:P2O5:K2O at 0-40:0-40:20 g/m kg FYM/m 2 and noted that flower yield in both years was highest (16.85 and t/ha, respectively), on plots receiving N:P2O5:K2O at 20:20:20 g/m kg FYM/m 2. Barman and Pal (1999) in West Bengal studied for optimum rates of N and K in cut chrysanthemum cv. Chandrama. Four rates of N (0, 10, 20 and 30 g/m 2 ) and three rates of K2O (0, 10 and 20 g/m 2 ) were tried. Among these treatments the dose N 30 g/m 2 and K 20 g/m 2 appreciably improved the flowering attributes. Mostafa (1996) at Sabbia Horticulture Research Station in Alexandria, Egypt studied the chrysanthemum cv. Wilson s White and observed that application of K2O 19.2 g/plant increased stem dry weight and vase life of the flowers, but addition of N in combination with K reduced vase life. Baboo and Sharma (1997) stated that when the level of K was increased from 0 to 160 kg, the number of flowers and flower size were markedly increased and significantly increased flower yield and net return compared to the control. De and Dhiman (1998) carried out an experiment to study the effect of different levels of K on the growth and flowering of chrysanthemum cv. Chandrama, under Tripura conditions during the year and concluded that the application of 200 kg K2O/ha was the optimum dose for the production of good quality cut flowers. Joshi (2002) conducted an experiment and found that all the flowering parameters, yield and quality of flower remained non-significant with K application. Joshi (2005) conducted an experiment at College of Agriculture, Junagadh during the year and on

69 68 chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 and Shyamal with 100 and 150 kg K2O/ha. The effect of potash was found non-significant to all of flowering and yield attributes. c. Gaillardia In a trial on gaillardia, potassium had significant effects on the yield in terms of number and weight of flowers/plant and per hectare (Singatkar et al., 1995). They also observed that the application of 75 kg K/ha resulted in increased number and weight of flowers. However, maximum diameter of flower was recorded at higher level (125 kg/ha). d. Other Flower Crops Kamel et al. (1975) studied in gerbera and found that application of NPK at 2:4:1 g/25 cm pot gave the more number of flowers, while longest flower stalk was obtained with 1:2:0.5 g/25 cm pot. On the other hand, Kacperska (1985) conducted an experiment on gerbera cv. Apple Bloesem with NPK ratio 1:0.21:1.21. The highest quality flowers were produced by basal dressing of 1-2 g NPK/lit peat. Dufault et al. (1990) found nonsignificant result in case of vase life of gerbera cut flower with potassium application in two years experiment. Sekar et al. (1995) conducted an experiment at Annamalai University, Annamalainagar to study the effect of N and K on yield and quality of gerbera cv. Mammut and noted that among the different levels of potassium, 200 kg K2O/ha showed maximum effect for flowering characters viz., flower diameter, single flower weight and vase life of flower.

70 Effect of potash on nutrient composition and Uptake a. Marigold Anuradha et al. (1988a) conducted an experiment on marigold at Agriculture College Orchard, Bapatla during the year and tested different levels of N (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha), P2O5 (0, 30, 40 and 50 kg/ha) and a uniform dose of K (60 kg/ha) and found that application of N and P2O5 significantly increased the content and uptake of K in the plant. Parkash et al. (2002a) studied in marigold at Hisar and noted that N and P content in leaves increased, while potassium decreased with increase in soil salinity at all levels of P. A significant increase in P and K content was observed. Phosphorus and potassium content of leaves increased with the addition of 5 and 10 per cent FYM. b. Chrysanthemum Moustafa and Morgan (1983) conducted an experiment to study the response of the cultivars Fandango and Hurricane during the rooting, long day and short day phases of growth and noted that plant tissue levels of N, P, K and Ca increased rapidly with nutrient solution concentration about 1000 mus. Potassium levels of roots increased markedly from 2.5% in tap water (130 mus) to a maximum 8.6% at about 1000 mus (specific conductivity). Yang et al. (1989) studied in Chrysanthemum coronarium and found that N and K contents increased with increasing rates of N, while content of P decreased. Hwang et al. (1992) studied on chrysanthemum cv. Cheon-Soo planted in 24 m 2 plots on two sandy soils differing in nutrient status and supplied with four rates of N (0, 10, 20, or 30 kg/ha), four rates of P2O5 (0, 10, 20 or 30 kg/ha) and three rates of K2O (0, 12.5, 25 or 50 kg/ha). They noted

71 70 that uptake of nutrients by plants was in order of K2O > total > Na > Ca > P > Mg. Joshi (2005) observed that application of potash (100 and 150 kg/ha) was failed to influence the nutrient content and uptake as well as availability of nutrients significantly during the experiment. c. Carnation Mukhopadhyay and Sadhu (1988) tested the levels of NPK in carnation cv. Crimson and applied N at 0, 10 and 20 g/m 2 and three doses each of P2O5 and K2O at 0, 20 and 40 g/m 2 and noted that the K content of leaves increased only at the lower dose of K2O. Further, high N fertilization was found to be associated with low K content in the leaves. d. Gaillardia Singatkar (1993) observed that an application of potash at 125 kg/ha level recorded maximum leaf N and K contents. e. Other Flower Crops Singh (2000) reported that higher dose of nitrogen to tuberose was found effective only in increasing N content in leaf and bulb, but did not show any significant effect on P and K content. Whereas, application of K increased only K content in leaves and N and K content in bulbs. Singh et al. (2002) at Hisar tried different levels of N (0, 25, 50 and 75 g/m 2), P (0, 20 and 30 g/m 2 ) and K (0 and 20 g/m 2 ) on gladiolus cv. Sylvia and observed that, nitrogen and potassium applications resulted in increase of leaf phosphorus over control, but the increase was non-significant. Leaf potassium level was

72 71 raised significantly, with nitrogen and potassium application, whereas the effect of phosphorus on leaf potassium was nonsignificant. 2.2 EFFECT OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS There is strong need for the modification /manipulation of the traditional processes of nutrient management, to result in the higher nutrient concentration and also to reduce environmental pollution. The use of organic manures like farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost and biofertilizers like Azospirillum, phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) along with chemical fertilizers reduce the cost of production and supplement the secondary and micronutrients to the crops (Barker, 1975). The balanced nutrition brings about optimum growth and development of plants. For balanced nutrition, the use of organic manures and biofertilizers in combination with NPK is beneficial. Information on integrated nutrient management in respect of growth, yield and quality of flowers in marigold is meagre. In view of scarcity of literature availability on this crop, such literature available on other crops like chrysanthemum, carnation, aster, gaillardia, ever lasting flower and other horticultural crops have been reviewed and presented here under, with the following headings Effect of farm yard manure (FYM) Farm yard manure occupies an important position among bulky organic manures. It plays a pivotal role in enhancing population of beneficial micro flora (Gupta and Konde, 1983). The cattle excreta based FYM in India can potentially supply approximately 33 million tonnes of N, P and K per year (Gaur, 1984). The FYM seems to act directly by increasing crop yield either by acceleration of respiratory process through cell permeability or by hormone growth action. It supplies N, P and K in available forms to the plants

73 72 through biological decomposition. According to Gaur et al. (1992), FYM contains 0.5 to 1.0 per cent N, 0.15 to 0.2 per cent P2O5 and 0.5 to 0.6 per cent K2O Effect of farm yard manure (FYM) on growth parameters a. Marigold Parkash et al. (2002a) concluded that phosphorus and potassium content in the leaves increased with addition of 5 and 10 per cent FYM, whereas, N content had increased in the leaves only with addition of 5.0 per cent FYM in marigold. FYM addition to the soil also increased the yield parameters. Yadav et al. (2000) observed that the reduction in flower size, number of flowers per plant and flower yield at higher dose of N (>180 ppm) in African marigold, whereas the application of FYM improved the flower characters. In their earlier studies, Yadav and Dixit (1997) noticed increase in growth parameters (plant height and plant spread) and flower yield consistently upto 120 ppm N and obtained maximum yield at 180 ppm N. b. Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum flower yield increased from to tonnes per hectare, when the plots received N, P2O5 and K2O at the rate of 20:20:20 g + 5 Kg FYM per sq.m (Chezhiyan et al., 1986). c. Aster Kulkarni (1994) reported that highest peduncle length of cm and maximum number of saleable flowers (38.40) was obtained in the treatment which received 1.5 tonnes per hectare of

74 73 FYM + N, P2O5 and K2O at the rate of 180:120:60 kg per hectare in china aster. Sreenivas et al. (1999) reported that the increase in number of flowers per plant and flower yield in china aster with the application of FYM at the rate of 15 tonnes per hectare along with recommended NPK. Haripriya and Sri ramachandrasekharan (2002) reported that application of FYM + mine soil at 1:2 ratio resulted in the better growth and yield of marigold as compared to leaf mould and press mud in aster. d. Other Flower Crops Application of FYM (5 t/ha) in rose resulted in production of maximum leaf area, length of first order lateral shoots, number of flowers/m2 during second flush and weight of flowers/m2 during first and second flushes (Singh, 2005) Effect of vermicompost Vermicompost besides being a rich source of micronutrients also acts as a chelating agent and regulates the availability of metabolic micronutrients to the plants apart from increasing the plant growth and yield by providing nutrients in the available form. Use of vermicompost in agriculture was first reported by Hopp and Slater (1979). Further, they quantified the response of crop to earthworms in terms of yield. Field studies on effect of vermicompost on marigold crop is limited. Hence, brief reviews on other of horticulture crop is given here under.

75 Effect of vermicompost on growth parameters a. Marigold Atiyeh et al. (2000) reported that relatively low concentration of vermicompost could promote plant growth in marigold. Ajikumar (2002) reported that in marigold the maximum plant height, number of branches, number of leaves, more diameter of flower (7.70 cm), number of flowers per plant and flower yield per hectare due to application of vermicompost 10 ha -1 + recommended NPK. In marigold, the plants applied with vermicompost (15 tonnes per hectare) per cent recommended NPK produce maximum number of flowers per plant with greater flower diameter and flower yield than plants without vermicompost and fertilizer application (Mashaldi, 2000). Maximum numbers of flower buds/plant, individual flower weight and flower yield/m 2 was recorded with application of vermicompost at 1000 g/m 2 in marigold (Chauhan et al., 2005b). Shashikant (2005) noticed in marigold that the application of 5.0 t ha -1 along with recommended dose of fertilizer had increased flower yield (13.9 t ha -1 ). Sunitha et al. (2007) concluded that application of vermicompost as 50% RDN along with 50% RDF gave significantly higher plant height ( cm) and maximum number of branches per plant (13.10) as compared to full recommended fertilizer dose (225:60:60 NPK kg ha -1 ) in marigold cv. Double Orange under Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions. Gaur et al. (2008) observed that growth parameters i.e. plant height, plant spread and number of branches per plant were recorded maximum with 5 t ha -1 vermicompost + 75% RDF

76 75 (150:60:60) NPK kg ha -1 as compared to control (unfertilized) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda under Agra conditions. b. Aster Kulkarni (1994) recorded increased growth and dry weight in China aster with the application of vermicompost at 2.5 to 5 t/ha alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizers; They also could reduce the use of chemical fertilizers to the extent of 25 to 50 per cent and zero per cent with the application of vermicompost and in situ vermiculture, respectively. Kulkarni et al. (1996) studied that plant height (54.01 cm) was significantly increased in treatments receiving 5 t ha % RDF as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (180:120:60 NPK kg ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Ostrich Plume Mixed at Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions. Nethra (1996) recorded the maximum plant height, number of leaves, number of flowers per plant and flower yield per hectare due to the application of 10 tonnes per hectare and recommended dose of NPK in china aster. In the same crop, application of vermicompost and FYM with recommended NPK increased the plant height, number of leaves, number of branches and flower yield (Sreenivas and Narayanagowda, 1999). Narayanagowda (2003) in china aster reported that application of vermicompost along with reduced dose of chemical fertilizers had beneficial effects on growth and yield parameters as compared to application of inorganic fertilizers alone. Balaji et al. (2006) reported that the application of vermicompost (2.5-5 t/ha) helped to reduce the inorganic fertilizer requirement of china aster crop to the tune of per cent without affecting the yield. Similarly, in situ vermiculture (2 lakhs

77 76 earthworms/ha) without any fertilizer also showed similar results as that of recommended practices (180: 120:60 kg NPK/ha + 15 t/ha FYM). Chaitra and Patil (2007) observed significant increase in plant height, number of leaves, number of branches, total dry matter production and also flower yield in china aster Cv. Kamini with the application of 2.5 t ha -1 with 50 per cent RDF. c. Other Flower Crops Kale et al. (1987) reported that reduction in the fertilizer levels was made up with the vermicompost application without any reduction in yield owing to higher P fertilization due to symbiotic mycorrhizal association in salvia and ornamental plants. A significant increase in the leaf area index and flowering was also observed due to vermicompost application. Kusuma (2001) reported that the maximum plant height (68.25cm), maximum number of leaves (74.58), highest stem girth (1.65cm), maximum number of suckers (9.17) were recorded in the treatment applied with different levels of NPK and 10t/ha in golden rod Similar to the vegetative parameters, the flower yield and yield attributes were also influenced by the application of different levels of NPK and vermicompost at 1 0t/ha in golden rod. Gangadharan and Gopinath (2000) reported that application of 10 t ha per cent recommended NPK dosage resulted in better growth with higher flower yield and quality of gladiolus cut flowers. Munikrishnappa et al. (2004) in their experiment the application of 50 per cent of recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) along with 5.0 t ha -1 had improved the flower

78 77 characters viz., length of the spike, length of the rachis, diameter of the florets, number of florets per spike and flower yield in tuberose. Warade et al. (2007) recorded that the growth of dahlia in respect of height of plant, number of leaves plant -1, spread of plant, earliness of flowering and yield of flowers was superior in the plants receiving vermicompost 500 g with PSB 25 g plot Effect of vermicompost on flowering and yield parameters a. Marigold Gaur et al. (2008) observed that flower yield ( q ha -1 ) was obtained to be maximum with 5 t ha -1 vermicompost + 75% RDF (150:60:60) NPK kg ha -1 as compared to control (unfertilized) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda under Agra conditions. Naik et al. (2008) revealed that application of vermicompost (12.5% N) + poultry manure (12.5% N) g of Azospirillum along with 75% RDN ha -1 resulted early flower bud initiation, 50% flowering, maximum flower diameter and number of flowers per plant in marigold under Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions. Patel et al. (2008) reported that application of 10 t ha -1 vermicompost with 160 kg N ha -1 minimize days to 50% flowering (64.25 days), increased flower diameter (7.6 cm), number of flowers per plant (58.38) and flower yield ( g plant -1 and 8.8 t ha -1 ) in marigold cv. Sierra Yellow b. China aster Kulkarni et al. (1996) studied that flowering parameters; numbers of flowers per plant (45.20) and flower yield (11.83 t ha -1 ) were significantly increased in treatments receiving

79 t ha % RDF in China aster as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (180:120:60 NPK kg ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Ostrich Plume Mixed at Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions. Nethra et al. (1999) reported that application of vermicompost (10 t ha -1 ) + recommended NPK dose (180:120:100; kg ha -1 ) gave maximum number of flowers per plant (34.33), flower diameter (6.28 cm) and flower yield (6.8 t ha -1 ) in China aster at Bangalore conditions. Chaitra and Patil (2007) found that the application of vermicompost (2.5 t ha -1 ), Azospirillum and PSB along with 50% RD of NPK gave early flowering (74.93 days), maximum number of flowers per plant (46.60) and flower yield (11.71 t ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Kamini as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (180:120:60 kg NPK ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Kamini under Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions Effect of vermicompost on shelf life a. Marigold Patel et al. (2008) reported that plants receiving 10 t ha -1 vermicompost kg N ha -1 exhibited maximum keeping quality (9.28 days) in marigold cv. Sierra Yellow. b. China aster Nethra et al. (1999) recorded maximum vase life (11.16 days) in China aster when flowers were treated with 15 t ha -1 vermicompost and 50% recommended dose of NPK (90:60:50 kg ha - 1) at Bangalore conditions EFFECT OF BIOFERTILIZERS Biofertilizers are the new cost effective renewable sources of plant nutrients, help in better utilization of added

80 79 inorganic matter in soil. Inoculation of Azotobacter and Azospirillum enhanced the cell division and enlargement and also produced growth hormones. They help in atmospheric nitrogen fixation through the action of nitrogenase enzyme. Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria have capacity to render insoluble forms of phosphate more available to plants and also increase the efficiency of phosphatic fertilizers applied to the soil. The studies conducted so far on marigold response to biofertilizers have been summarized here under the following sub heads Effect of biofertilizers on growth parameters a. Marigold Balasubramanian (1989) observed that the application of three fourth of recommended dose of N and P fertilizers (93.75 kg N ha -1 and 90 kg P ha -1 ) with Azospirillum and VAM resulted in increased growth attributes of French marigold under Coimbatore conditions. Rajadurai et al. (2000) reported that application of 45:45:37.5 kg ha -1 along with combine inoculation of Azospirillum and VAM increased in plant height ( cm) as compared to without inoculation of biofertilizers of marigold. Methew and Singh (2003) reported that combined application of PSB, Azotobacter and Azospirillum as seedling dip method gave maximum plant height (85.62 cm) and maximum number of branches per plant (15.65) over control (100:80:80 kg ha - 1) in African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda in Varanasi conditions. Rathi et al. (2005) noticed that an application of 75% recommended dose of N (150 kg ha -1 ), full dose of P2O5 and K2O (50 kg ha -1 ) along with Azotobacter and Phosphobacterin (PSB) as

81 80 seedling dip method gave maximum number of branches per plant (17.47) and plant spread (37.47 N-S and E-W) as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (200:50:50 kg NPK ha -1 ) under Navsari (Gujarat) conditions in African marigold cv. Local. Suthar (2005) reported that an application of 100 kg N ha kg P2O kg K2O along with Azospirillum and Azotobacter applied as seedling dip method gave the highest plant height ( cm), number of branches per plant (27.66) and plant spread (40.30 cm N-S and cm E-W) as compared to control (150:50:50 kg NPK ha -1 ) in African marigold cv. Local at Anand (Gujarat) conditions. Kumar et al. (2006a) reported that when PSB applied through seed treatment in combination with FYM increased the plant height (44.3 cm) and plant spread (18.5 cm 2 ) as compared to control (FYM) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi' in Hissar (Haryana) conditions. Syamal et al. (2006) reported that application of 1.5 kg ha -1 along with 75% recommended dose of NPK (100:100:100 kg ha -1 ) gave optimum plant height (61.77 cm) as compared to recommended fertilizer dose without biofertilizers applications in marigold cv. Rusty Red. Swaroop et al. (2008) conducted a field experiment at IARI, New Delhi and observed that application of Azotobacter as seed treatment increased the plant height (53.75 cm) over control in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi. b. Chrysanthemum Panchal (2009) reported that an application of 175 kg N ha kg P2O kg K2O along with Azospirillum and Azotobacter applied as seedling dip method gave the highest plant

82 81 height (96.23 cm), number of branches per plant (50.59) and plant spread (79.08 cm N-S and cm E-W) as compared to control (200:100:100 kg NPK ha -1 ) in annual white chrysanthemum at Anand (Gujarat) conditions. c. China aster Kumar et al. (2003) revealed that optimum plant height (59.80 cm) and number of branches per plant (18.53) were observed maximum when plants were treated with 75% recommended dose of N and P2O5 in combination with full K2O, VAM (1 g/hole) and phosphobacteria (seedling dip method) as compared to full recommended NPK dose (100:80:100 kg ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Kamini at IARI, New Delhi conditions. Nandre et al. (2005) concluded in his field experiment at Akola (Maharashtra) that an application of Azotobactor as soil application and 75% recommended dose of nitrogen (112.5 kg ha -1 ) with 50 kg ha -1 (P2O5 and K2O each) increased plant height (58.72 cm) and number of branches per plant (26.45) as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (150:50:50 kg NPK ha -1 ) in China aster. Chaitra and Patil (2007) found that application of Azospirillum, PSB (200 g/l each) and vermicompost (2.5 t) along with 50 % RD of NPK gave optimum plant height (60.88 cm) and more number of branches per plant (25.08) as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (180:120:60 kg NPK ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Kamini under Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions. d. Gaillardia Rathod et al. (2002) concluded that application of 75% recommended NPK dose in combination with Azospirillum + phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) as seedling dip method resulted in the highest number of branches per plant (41.00) as

83 82 compared to full recommended NPK dose (100:50:50 kg ha -1 ) in gaillardia under Parbhani (Maharashtra) conditions. Gadagi et al. (2004) observed that an application of Azospirillum in combination with 150 kg N ha -1 significantly increased plant height and number of branches per plant in gaillardia (Gaillardia pulchella). e. Other Flower Crops Swaminathan and Sambandamurthi (2000) noticed that the plant height and number of branches per plant were found the highest with 120 kg N + 70 kg K2O + Azospirillum 2 kg + FYM 30 t ha -1 in crossandra. They further observed that Azospirillum + N + K2O proved to be more beneficial than Azospirillum or FYM alone. Raju and Haripriya (2001) concluded that an application of 100% NPK + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria resulted in maximum plant height (57.42 cm) and number of branches per plant (12.47) as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (75:50:125 kg ha -1 ) in crossandra cv. Dindigul local under Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) conditions Effect of biofertilizers on flowering and yield parameters a. Marigold Gupta (1997) reported that the highest flower yield (18.8 t ha -1 ) of marigold was recorded in treatment with Azotobacter + PSB and 75 % N as compared to that where only 100 % N (14.14 t ha -1 ) was used. Further he concluded that the use of biofertilizers can save 25 percent nitrogen. Chandrikapure et al. (1999) revealed that an application of Azotobacter and PSB along with 75 % N gave the highest flower

84 83 yield per hectare (58.46 q ha -1 ) over control (19.23 q ha -1 ) in marigold. Methew and Singh (2003) reported that combined application of PSB, Azotobacter and Azospirillum as seedling deep method showed significant result in single flower weight (14.28 g), number of flowers per plant (27.92) and flower yield per hectare (25.01 t) over control (100:80:80 kg ha -1 ) in African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda in Varanasi conditions. Rathi et al. (2005) reported that an application of 75% recommended dose of N (150 kg ha -1 ), full dose of P2O5 and K2O (50 kg ha -1 each) along with Azotobacter and Phosphobacterin (PSB) as seedling dip method gave minimum days to first flower bud initiation (52.60) and 50% flowering (65.70) whereas maximum single flower weight (8.53 g), number of flowers per plant (40.54) and flower yield (72.22 q ha -1 ) obtained with the same treatment as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (200:50:50 kg NPK ha -1 ) under Navsari (Gujarat) conditions in African marigold cv. Local. Kumar et al. (2006 b) reported that when PSB applied through seed treatment in combination with FYM increased the flower diameter (6.0 cm), average flower weight (6.7 g) and flower yield per plant (40.3 g) as compared to control (FYM) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi' in Hissar (Haryana) conditions. Syamal et al. (2006) reported that an application of 1.5 kg ha -1 along with 75% recommended dose of NPK (100:100:100 kg ha -1 ) gave maximum number of flowers per plant (219.77) as compared to recommended fertilizer dose without biofertilizers applications in marigold cv. Rusty Red. Kapadiya et al. (2008) reported that an application of Azotobacter + PSB + ¾ dose of N + full dose of P2O5 resulted early flowering, increased the flower size and number of flowers per plant

85 84 in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda under Navsari (Gujarat) conditions. b. Chrysanthemum Combined application of 175 kg N ha -1 + Azotobacter + Azospirillum resulted in minimum days for first flower bud appearance (87.47 days), maximum number of flowers per plant (44.51), flower diameter (7.18 cm), weight of individual flower (3.11 g) and flower yield ( g/plant and t ha -1 ) as compared to control (200:100:100 NPK kg ha -1 ) in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 (Chauhan, 2005a). Panchal (2009) reported that an application of 175 kg N ha kg P2O kg K2O along with Azospirillum and Azotobacter applied as seedling dip method gave the highest flower diameter (7.37 cm), number of flowers per plant (161.28) and flower yield (22.56 t ha -1 ) as compared to control (200:100:100 kg NPK ha - 1) in annual white chrysanthemum at Anand (Gujarat) conditions. c. China aster Kumar et al. (2003) revealed that all the flowering parameters gave significantly superior result when treated with 75% recommended dose of N and P2O5 in combination with full VAM (1 g/hole) and phosphobacteria (seedling dip method) as compared to full recommended NPK dose (100:80:100 kg ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Kamini at IARI, New Delhi conditions. Nandre et al. (2005) reported that an application of Azotobactor as soil application and 75% recommended dose of nitrogen (112.5 kg ha -1 ) with 50 kg ha -1 (P2O5 and K2O each) resulted maximum number of flowers per plant (39.60) and flower yield ( g/plant and t ha -1 ) as compared to

86 85 recommended fertilizer dose (150:50:50 kg NPK ha -1 ) in China aster under Akola (Maharashtra) conditions. As reported by Panchal (2006), significantly less number of days were taken for first flower initiation after transplanting (49.60 days), maximum flower diameter (7.52 cm), number of flowers per plant (36.73), individual flower weight (2.70 g) and flower yield (99.07 g/plant and 11.0 t ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Purnima with the combined application of 90 kg N ha -1 + Azospirillum + Azotobacter as compared to control (120:80:80 NPK kg ha -1 ) under Anand (Gujarat) conditions. Chaitra and Patil (2007) found that an application of Azospirillum, PSB (200 g/l each) and vermicompost (2.5 t -1 ) along with 50% RD of NPK gave minimum days to first flowering (74.93), maximum no. of flowers per plant (46.60) and flower yield (11.71 t ha -1 ) as compared to recommended fertilizer dose (180:120:60 kg NPK ha -1 ) under Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions in China aster cv. Kamini. Patil et al. (2008) found that an application of NPK (90:60:30 kg ha -1 ) + Azophos (2 g per plant) + FYM (20 t ha -1 ) produced maximum number of flowers per plant (30.10), flower size (6.10 cm), earliness in flowering (54.50 days) and flower yield (11.60 t ha -1 ) in China aster cv. Kamini at Dharwad (Karnataka) conditions. d. Gaillardia Rathod et al. (2002) observed that an application of 75% recommended NPK dose in combination with Azospirillum + PSB as seedling dip method resulted in maximum number of flowers per plant (70.23), flower diameter (5.03 cm), single flower weight (2.03 g), flower yield per plant ( g) and flower yield per hectare (8.91 t ha -1 ) as compared to full recommended NPK dose (100:50:50

87 86 kg ha -1 ) in gaillardia under Parbhani conditions. They further suggested that about 25% recommended NPK dose can be saved by incorporating biofertilizers in nutrient management of gaillardia. Parmar (2006) reported that an application of 50 kg N ha -1 + Azospirillum + Azotobactor lowered the days for first flower initiation after transplanting (53.20 days), maximum flower diameter (7.52 cm), number of flowers per plant (111.50), increased individual flower weight (3.60 g) and flower yield (353 g/plant and t ha -1 ) as compared to control (100:50:50 NPK kg ha -1 ) in gaillardia cv. Local under Anand (Gujarat) conditions Effect of biofertilizers on shelf life a. Marigold Suthar (2005) reported that the application of Azotobacter applied as seedling dip method with each of 50 kg P2O5 and K2O gave maximum vase life (5.33 days) as compared to control (150:50:50 kg NPK ha -1 ) in African marigold cv. Local. b. Chrysanthemum Chauhan (2005a) find out longest vase life (13.90 days) with 150 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O ha -1 along with Azospirillum as compared to control (200:100:100 NPK kg ha -1 ) in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6. Panchal (2009) reported that an application of 150 kg N ha kg P2O kg K2O along with Azospirillum gave the highest shelf life (4.33 days) as compared to control (200:100:100 kg NPK ha -1 ) in annual white chrysanthemum. c. China aster Parmar (2007) reported that vase life of China aster flowers was maximum (11.22 days) when plants were treated with

88 87 Azospirillum, Azotobacter along with 90 kg N ha -1, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O as compared to control (120:50:50 kg NPK ha -1 ) under Navsari (Gujarat) conditions. 2.3 INTERACTION EFFECT a. Marigold Anuradha et al. (1988a) studied the effect of N and P2O5 on the nutrient composition and uptake by marigold and found non significant effect on nutrient content and uptake at 30, 60 and 90 DAT except P2O5 uptake at 60 DAT. Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) at Madurai, studied the effects of soil applied nitrogen at 0, 80 and 120 kg ha -1, phosphorus at 0, 90 and 120 kg ha -1 and spraying of ascorbic acid at two intervals. The results revealed that application of higher dose of nitrogen with phosphorus at 90 kg ha -1 combined with ascorbic acid (1000 ppm) spray at 30 DAT recorded significant influence on the growth parameters and registered higher yield of African marigold. Buniak (1990) studied the influence of irrigation and fertilizer application on soil and plant composition, uptake and utilization of fertilizers by plant including marigold for nine sites in Poland. It was observed that with increasing NPK doses, the Ca content of marigold plant and K content of marigold leaves depended on the combined action of irrigation and fertilizers. It was concluded that the effectiveness of mineral fertilizers for marigold increased with irrigation and was greater for course-textured soils than for medium textured ones. However, it decreased with increasing doses of mineral fertilizers.

89 88 Anuradha et al. (1990) obtained significant interaction of N and P2O5 on marigold for number of days required for 50 per cent flowering, it may be due to possibility of P2O5 favouring flower bud differentiation and formation. The flower yield was highly significantly at N3P3 level (90 kg each of N and P2O5). Hameed and Sekar (1999) treated the Tagetes erecta cv. Salem and Dindigul with N at 0, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha -1 (applied in two split doses: basal and top dressing) and P2O5 at 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha -1 at Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu. Maximum stem length of flowers, flower diameter, single flower weight and yield per plant were observed in both cultivars treated with 150 kg N ha kg P2O5 ha -1. The same treatment produced the earliest 50 per cent flowering in both Dindigul (42.66 days) and Salem (43.33 days). Joshi and Barad (2002) reported that growth, flowering and flower qualities (in terms of days to anthesis, diameter of flower, number of ray florets per flower, number of flowers per plant and flower yield and vase life of cut flowers) were not influenced due to NP interaction except plant spread. The significantly maximum spread of plant (70.30 cm) was observed with N4P1 (200:50 kg ha -1 ), which was at par with N4P2 (200:100 kg ha -1 ) and N3P1 (150:50 kg ha -1 ) levels in African marigold cv. Crackerjack under Junagadh condition. Mohanty et al. (2002) reported that various combinations of N and P had no significant effect on the days to flowering and number of flowers per plant in African marigold cv. African Yellow at Bhubaneswar. However, the interaction effect of N and P was significant with respect to flower size and weight of individual flowers. The maximum flower size and weight were recorded upon treatment with N0P0 (i.e. without N or P). Moreover,

90 89 the significantly maximum flower production ( g per plant) was recorded upon treatment with 10 g N m -2 and 20 g P m -2. Investigations were carriedout on African marigold var. Double African Giant Orange at Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, during rabi seasons of and to study the effect of N (30, 45 and 60 kg ha -1 ) and P2O5 (45, 60 and 75 kg ha -1 ) with and without application of ascorbic acid in all possible combinations by Chadha (2002a). Results revealed that combined application of 60 kg N and 75 kg P2O5 along with foliar spray of 1000 ppm ascorbic acid recorded the highest flower yield and monetary return and BCR in both the years of experimentation. Chadha (2002b) conducted field experiments on African marigold var. Double African Giant Orange at JNKVV, Jabalpur, during rabi seasons with N (30, 45 and 60 kg ha -1 ) and P2O5 (45, 60 and 75 kg ha -1 ) with and without application of ascorbic acid in all possible combinations on uptake of major nutrient. The application of N and P with 1000 ppm spray of ascorbic acid showed positive effects on increase in N and P uptake at all growth stages, though the concentration of N and P in plants was not much influenced by application of these agrochemicals. Saud and Sarmah (2002) conducted an experiment on French marigold in Assam condition and found that fertilizer dose of NPK 100 kg each was superior to other three levels in terms of branch number and yield per hectare ( q). However, plant height was found to increase in higher doses of fertilizer and maximum in 150 kg each of NPK. Kumar et al. (2002) conducted an experiment in New Delhi, India during on African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi to determine the optimum levels of N, P and K for higher and good quality seed production. There were 27 treatment combinations

91 90 comprising of 3 rates each of N (0, 10 and 20 g N m -2 ), P (0, 10 and 20 g P2O5 m -2 ) and K (0, 5 and 10 g K2O m -2 ). N at 20 g m -2 gave the highest seed yield per plant (17.45 g). There were no significant differences in seed yield amongst P and K rates. An increase in N rate combined with an increase in the rate of P increased seed yield per plant. The results showed that 20 g N, 20 g P2O5 and 10 g K2O m -2 was optimum rates for seed production. b. Chrysanthemum Chezhiyan et al. (1986) studied the effect of five levels of N (0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 g m -2 ) and four levels of P (0, 10, 20 and 40 g m -2 ) with a constant levels of K (20 g m -2 ) along with 5 kg m -2 of FYM on growth, flowering and yield of Co-1 chrysanthemum during 1984 and 1985 (two years) at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore and reported that, number of branches, number of flowers per plant and yield were significantly increased under N20P20 levels of fertilizer application. The investigation was carriedout at Faizabad ( ) by Singh and Tiwari (1993) with five levels of nitrogen (0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 g m -2 ) and four levels of phosphorus (0, 15, 30 and 45 g m -2 ) with a constant levels of K (20 g m -2 ) along with 5 kg m -2 of FYM to all the treatment on chrysanthemum cv. Flirt. The results revealed that plant height (47.43 cm) and spread (24.98 cm) of plant were significantly increased with the application of 45 g N and 45 g P2O5 m -2 over control, while maximum branches were recorded with 30 g nitrogen along with 15 g phosphorus. Whereas, maximum size and number of flowers were observed with the application of 30 g N and 15 g P2O5. They further reported that highest yield per plant ( g) and dry weight (18.21 g) of flowers per plant were obtained with 30 g N and 45 g P2O5 m -2 while the yield of flowers was found to be significant up to 30 g N and 15 g P2O5 m -2.

92 91 In a field experiment conducted at Akola during the winter season of , applying 30 g N and 20 g P2O5 m -2 produced the best growth, highest yield (8.65 and 7.32 t ha -1, respectively) and highest quality flowers in Yellow Bijali chrysanthemum under irrigated conditions in a medium deep black soil (Khankhane et al., 1997). Application of N and P significantly improved the vegetative growth and influenced floral characters (such as number of flowers per plant, flower size, 100 flower weight) of chrysanthemum as compared with control. At N and P rate of 10 g m -2, the results were statistically at par with higher levels, hence an application rate of 10 g m -2 was recommended for both nutrients for optimum cut flower production under Kasmir condition (Jhon and Paul, 1999). Joshi (2002) recommended higher level of both nitrogen (150 kg ha -1 ) and phosphorus (100 kg ha -1 ) for maximum flower yield of chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 under North Gujarat. c. Carnation Arora and Saini (1976) conducted an experiment on the response of carnation to the various levels of N, P and K fertilization and reported that, the number of shoots per plant was mainly improved by NP interaction. They further reported that, the highest number of shoots was observed with the treatment of 40 g N and 20 g P m -2. d. Aster Proper manuring and fertilization are found to be very important for aster cultivation. West et al. (1981) reported that with increase in the levels of NPK, there was a corresponding reduction in dry weight, leaf area and rate of leaf growth.

93 92 In an experiment at Mondouri, West Bengal, in 1996, Callistephus chinensis cv. Ostrich Plume by Debnath et al. (1998) revealed that the number of flowers per plant ranged from 9.7 with no fertilizer to 17.1 with 10 g N + 20 g P + 20 g K m -2. The interaction between N and P levels was non significant for vegetative and floral parameters of China aster cv. Kamini (Singh and Sangama, 2000). Gaikwad et al. (2004) studied the effect of different levels of nitrogen (150, 200 and 250 kg ha -1 ) and phosphorus (100, 125 and 150 kg ha -1 ) on growth and flower production of China aster (cv. Phule Ganesh White) at Pune and they concluded that, the application of 200 kg N ha -1 and 125 kg P2O5 ha -1 along with 25 tonnes FYM and 100 kg K2O ha -1 were found better for increasing the flower production. e. Gaillardia A field experiment was conducted on nutritional requirement of gaillardia at Akola condition by Jadhao (1999) during kharif season of with three levels of nitrogen and phosphorus each at 50, 100 and 150 kg ha -1 and two levels of potassium (25 and 50 kg ha -1 ). It was found that among the NP interactions, the maximum growth and yield of gaillardia was observed at N2P2 (100:100 kg ha -1 ) interaction. Among the 18 combinations of nitrogen and phosphorus and potash, the combination of N2P2K1 (100:100:25 kg ha -1 ) produced statistically maximum value in all growth and yield parameters studied. f. Other Flower Crops A field experiment on Calendula was conducted during kharif in medium black soil for studying the effects of different levels of N, P and K on growth and yield by Sigedar et al. (1991).

94 93 The highest dose of N (100 kg ha -1 ) and P2O5 (50 kg ha -1 ) and K2O (25 kg ha -1 ) had shown maximum growth and higher yield. The highest number of flower and weight of flowers was obtained when plants were supplied with 100 kg N and 50 kg P2O5 ha ECONOMICS a. Marigold Patel (1990) worked out ICBR values with reference to different levels of nitrogen (20, 40, 60 and 80 g m -2 ) in African marigold and indicated that maximum additional realization of Rs per hectare was obtained by application of 60 g N m -2 with net ICBR of 1:2.30 over control (20 g m -2 ) under North Gujarat Condition. Avari (1993) conducted an experiment on Tagetes erecta cv. Lemon at Navsari and it was inferred that, from economic point of view, the marigold crops was fertilized with 150 kg N ha -1. The total nitrogen was applied in three splits (50 per cent as basal dose, 25 per cent at 15 DAT and 25 per cent at 35 DAT). Jamod (2001) concluded that potential production and net profit from African marigold cv. Local Orange was obtained with planting at 30 x 30 cm with application of 200 kg N ha -1 in medium black soils of South Saurashtra Agro-Climatic region. The more plant population and highest dose of nitrogen gave the maximum net profit of Rs per hectare. b. Chrysanthemum Baboo and Sharma (1997) recorded that the flower yield significantly increased with increasing nitrogen application from 0 to 300 kg ha -1 and found to be maximum at 300 kg N ha -1 (182.6 q ha -1 ) in chrysanthemum. This treatment also gave maximum net return per hectare.

95 94 Hemavathi (1997) observed increased cost benefit ratio when chrysanthemum plants were inoculated with Azospirillum + 75 per cent recommended NPK (1:2.7) compared to NPK alone (1:1.9). Joshi (2002) recommended that from economic point of view, cultivation of chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 with the application of 150 kg ha -1, in two split doses (half at the time of planting and remaining half four equal at 30, 45, 60 and 75 days after planting), 100 kg phosphorus and 25 kg potassium per hectare as basal dose was found most profitable under North Gujarat conditions. Patel (2004) found that nitrogen at 200 kg ha -1 through urea source recorded maximum cost benefit ratio (1:3.25) for economical yield in chrysanthemum cv. IIHR-6 grown in medium black soil of Junagadh. The yield attributes like number of flower plant -1, yield of flower plant -1 (g) and yield of flower ha -1 (q) with high B:C ratio were significantly maximum with the treatments receiving 80% NPK + Azospirillum + Azotobacter + PSB 5 kg each ha -1 in annual chrysanthemum (Meshram et al., 2008). c. Aster Srinivas (1994) reported that phosphocompost PC-4 which was prepared with 5.0 per cent P2O5 as mechanical reinforced phosphocompost + 10 per cent pyrites showed highest cost benefit ratio of 1.00:2.64 which suggested that, utilization of phosphocompost is profitable and can be recommended in the cultivation of china aster.

96 95 Vermicompost at the rate of 5 tonnes + N, P2O5 and K2O at the rate of 90:60:50 kg/ha recorded the highest benefit cost ratio of 3.1:1.0 in china aster (Nethra, 1996). d. Other Flower Crops In crossandra Cv. Dindigul local, the application of 75 per cent NPK (75:50:125 kg/ha) + Azospirillum + phosphobacteria each at 2 kg/ha gave highest flower yield (41.72 g/plant) with the maximum returns per rupee invested (1.0:3.5) as reported by Raju N.S.and Haripriya (2001). Shashidhara and Gopinath (2005) reported that significantly highest benefit cost ratio (1.82) was found with application of 135:90:60 kg NPK ha -1 + Azotobacter (200 g/ha) + VAM (15.6 g/plant) in calendula. Godse et al. (2006) found that the treatment of vermicompost 8 t ha -1 + Azotobacter and 25 kg ha -1 each + 80 % RDF exhibited the highest B:C ratio (3.70) when compared with RDF (2.81) in gladiolus.

97 96

98 97 CHAPTER III MATERIALS AND METHODS A field experiment entitled Effect of integrated nutrient management on African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) cv. Pusa Narangi was carried out during winter season of the year and The details of experimental materials used, procedures followed and techniques adopted during the course of present investigation are described in this chapter. 3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SITE Fruit Research Station (Lal baug), Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh. 3.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL FEATURES Junagadh is situated in South Saurashtra Agro climatic Zone of Gujarat state. Geographically, this place is located at N latitude and E longitudes with on altitude of 60 meters above the mean sea level on the western side at the foothills of Mount Girnar. This place experience the typical sub-tropical climate characterized by fairly cold and dry winter, hot and dry summer and warm and moderately humid rainy season. The rainy season commences in the second fortnight of June and extends up to September. The average annual rainfall is mm, out of which maximum rainfall occurs during the months of July and August. Partial failure of monsoon once in three to four years is very common phenomenon in this region. Winter sets in the month of November and continues till the month of February. January is the coldest month of winter. Summer commences in the second

99 98 fortnight of February and ends in the middle of June. April and May are the hottest months of summer. The weekly average weather data during the period of experimentation recorded at the Agro-Meteorological Observatory, located at Instructional Farm, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh are presented in Table 3.1 and 3.2 and graphically depicted in Fig. 3.1 and 3.2. It may be seen from the meteorological data that weather parameters like temperature, relative humidity and sunshine were more or less congenial for the growth of marigold crop during Rabi season of both the year and PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOILS OF EXPERIMENTAL SITE The Junagadh region is included in the West Coast- Kathiavar Peninsula of Gujarat state by N.B.S.S. and L.U.P., Nagpur. The soil has been classified as Vertic Ustochrepts and the order is Vertisol. A composite soil sample was taken from the experimental field before commencement of the experiment from 0-15 and cm depth to record physico-chemical properties of the soil (Table 3.3). The soil of experimental plot was clayey in texture, calcareous in nature and slightly alkaline in reaction. The soil was moderate in organic carbon, low in available N and P2O5 and medium in available K2O.

100 99 Table 3.1 Meteorological data recorded during crop season of the year Meteoro- Temperature Relative Sun Rain- Rainy logical ( C) humidity (%) shine fall Days week Max. Min. Max. Min. (h) (mm)

101 100

102

103 102 Table 3.3 Physico-chemical properties of experimental soil Particulars Value at different soil depth (cm) Method employed A. Physical determination 1. Sand (%) International pipette method 2. Silt (%) (Piper,1950) 3. Clay (%) B. Chemical determination 1. Available nitrogen (kg/ha) 2. Available phosphorus (kg/ha) 3. Available potash (kg/ha) 4. Organic carbon (%) 5. Soil ph (1:2.5 soil: water ratio) 6. Electrical conductivity (ds/m) at 25 0 C (1:2.5 soil: water ratio) Alkaline KMnO4 method (Subbaiah and Asija, 1956) Olsen s method (Olsen et al., 1954) Flame photometric method (Jackson, 1967) Walkley and Black s method (Jackson, 1967) ph meter (Richard, 1954) EC meter (Jackson, 1967)

104 PROCUREMENT OF SEED AND SALIENT FEATURES OF THE VARIETIES Seed of Pusa Narangi variety was obtained from the seed production unit of IARI, New Delhi during both the years of experimentation. African marigold (T. erecta L.) is also known as Gainda in Hindi. The plants are upright, quick growing and having large number of varieties into cultivation. There is much variation in the plant height, shape and size of flowers. The height of plants ranges from 25 to 100 cm or even more. The flowers of these varieties are large, deep orange (orpiment), light orange (tangerine), golden yellow, canary yellow, bright yellow and lemon yellow in colour. Pusa Narangi Gainda (Cracker Jack x Golden jubilee) released in a year of 2003 at IARI, New Delhi. It takes days for flowering from sowing. Plants are 73.3 cm tall, vigorous and uniform; Foliage dark green; Flowers orange colored, carnation type, double, 7.8 cm in size and disc florets presents. It gives a yield of 349 q ha -1 fresh flowers. 3.5 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Experimental Design The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications and eleven treatments. The plan and layout of experiment is given in Fig Details of the Treatments In the experiment, eleven treatments were tried, comprising three levels of RDF, and three levels of vermicompost with Azotobacter, Azospirllum, PSB and FYM 15 t ha -1 with RDF and control (only RDF without FYM) and their combinations.

105 104 Materials and Methods 2.7m 16.20m Irrigation Channel 1m NORTH T8 T10 T3 T6 T2 T11 R- T9 T4 T1 T5 T7 F Irrigation Channel 1m 29.00m T11 T9 T5 T2 T6 T1 R- T7 T4 T8 T10 T3 F Irrigation Channel 1m T4 T10 T8 T3 T9 T5 R- T2 T7 T11 T1 T6 F Irrigation Channel 1m Design : Randomized Block Design Gross Plot : 4.50m X 2.70m Net Plot : 3.60m X 1.80m Total Area : Sqm.