3 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY

Transcription

1 3 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY Structure 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Architecture Prehistoric Egyptian Architecture Greek Roman Architecture 3.3 Western Architecture (300 AD AD) Early Christian, and Romanesque Architecture Architecture 3.4 Western Architecture (1400 AD AD) Architecture Architecture Century Architecture 3.7 Answers t o 3.1 INTRODUCTION history of architecture is a record of continuous evolution. Architecture has evolved the ages has and adapted to meet the changing needs of societies in their religious. political and domestic development. An history of architecture is necessary (a) to understand forces and factors which gave rise to expressions at various places in the world at different times. Some of these factors are geographical, geological, climatic, religious, social and historical. to understand development of construction techniques and its impact on style. In unit, we have covered mainly European arid Western architecture. Indian Architecture has been separately dealt with in the next unit. There are important architectural historical which could not be included due to the restriction of space. There are numerous hooks covering various aspects of architectural history of parts the world. We have listed a few books at the end of the block under the section "Further reading" where the students may also find the missed out parts. Objectives After studying unit, you should be to. discuss the salient features of ancient, western and modem architecture, identify building types of ancient, western modern and describe the system of construction of some the buildings of the past. / 3.2 ANCIENT General Prehistoric Architecture Prehistoric man sought shelter in caves, seeking protection from animals. This the earliest dwellings. With the progress of civilisation man moved from the caves to shelter, constructed of leaves, wattle and daub, bark and skins. Some of prehistoric shelters have been shown in Figure 3.1. These modes of are still used by tribes in India today. But major prehistoric building remain found in Europe and have a religious connotation. Some of these are the and Brittany, the Stonehenge and Avebury in Wiltshire in England. These are

2 Architecture: Principles and Scope 'Megalithic' (constructed of gigantic stones) and it is a matter of great wonder as to how this massive task was carried out in the absence of mechanical devices. Figure 3.1:Prehistoric Shelters Egyptian Architecture (3000 BC 100 AD) Egypt is situated the banks of the Nile with the Mediterranean on the North and the Red sea on its South-East. The Egyptians built their settlements on the banks of the fertile Nile river. Stone was abundant in Egypt was used profusely for ornaments, and utensils. The response to climate was achieved building walls and roofs to exclude the heat. Religion played a vital role in Egyptian Architecture. The rnysterious religious rites of the Egyptian are expressed and Tombs. social condition of Egyptian Civilisation are made known to us through records on Papyri and Tablets. Egyptian buildings are their inscriptions and heiroglyphics. The kings of Ancient Egypt enjoyed great power and authority. They employed large armies of labourers the monumental buildings such as the Pyramid at and the Temples at architecture of Egypt is characterised by massive walls and sturdy close-spaced columns carrying stone lintels which in turn support a flat roof. System of Construction The construction techniques in Egyptian buildings evolved the use temporary materials like papyrus reeds, branch ribs with clay to hard permanent materials such as timber, logs, mud brick walls and finally in use of stone. The various types of stones available was sometimes granite. The clay mortar for stone construction was used more as lubricant than as an adhesive. Egyptians built tapered walls for greater stability where the inner face was vertical the outer face sloping. Often brick walls were strengthened by the use of reeds or reed mat between courses to act as reinforcement. The stone construction Egyptian buildings was essentially columnar and and hence, used only in the of Arches were never used as a spanning element since this technique unknown to the ancient Egyptians. In the later periods. some of vaulting was in use which required centering. Building Types The Egyptian monumental architecture comprises basically of three types Tomb architecture (b) Temple Architecture (c) and dwellings. can be further classified into (i) (ii) royal pyramids rock hewn These were burial chambers and store houses of the finest might be by the decreased and eternal enjoyment in the future. The dead embalmed and preserved in a stone sarcophagus. earliest tombs were called which later took the form of a stepped pyramid before its final form. typical were laid on a North South axis and deep into the ground. After the burial. heavy stone portullises were dropped on the slots connected to the shaft. This was completely filled with earth and a super-structure was built above the, The Pyramid stood as a part of a complex of buildings. The complex generally 22 consisted of an offering chapel, a mortuary temple for the worship of the deified

3 Pharaohs, a raised and enclosed causeway leading to the valley building in which was carried out and internment rites performed. A canal was also built to connect the valley with the Nile by which the funeral cortege arrived. The were built in a concentric layers of sloping slices around a pyramidal core consisting of burial chambers and shafts. The stepped outer surface was filled with finely dressed packing stones from top to bottom and'the apex stone was probably guilded. It is believed that ramps of sand and earth were around the Pyramid by which the building stones were liauled up. The Great of Gizeh are the Pyramids of Cheops, and Mykerinos. These are the classic examples of Royal Pyramids. The Pyramid of Clieops, 46 m high to 228 m square in plan; covering hectares of land contained a 650,000 tones of dressed stones. There were three burial chambers. One. deep subterranean, and the others, the Queens chamber and the Cheops funeral were built above ground level. These chambers were approached by a ccrridor 46 m long and 8 m high (Figure 3.2). In tlie complex the GI-eat of Chephren carved from spur rock measuring 60 m long and 20 m It depicts King Chephren with the body of a In spite of erosion and damages the face has retained majestic, enigmatic beauty (Figure 3.3)... Architectural History Figure 3.2: of Figure 3.3: Rock Cut Egyptian were of two types (a) Mortuary at tomb site for the Royal family arid Cult teniple tor the commoners. A typical was axially and approached through huge pylons into a courtyard. courtyard surrounded by columns which further let to a covered structure called the Hypostyle Hall of many columns and a Sanctuary (Figure 3.4).

4 Architecture: Principles SAQ Describe in four dwellings of Prehistoric List the Stale the factors that affected Egyptian Architecture. in short of Egyptian Architecture was the of construction in Egyptian Name the types of Egyptian Architecture. Describe in (i) Pyramids Rock-cur Greek Architectu re (3000 BC 30 BC) The Greek civilisation is a s u m total of Mycenean, Hellenic and developments. The Aegean began about 3000 BC on the of Create lies in the having the mainlands of and Lycia on its north. The culture extended to and its islands BC. The from the mainland took control of Create in 1400 BC. In 1100 BC, Greeks the mainland and the Aegean was completely destroyed. Thus, Hellenic Greece, a nevv was born. There are two principal phases of Greek Architecture namely the Hellenic period (650 BC to 323 BC) and the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 30 BC). The Greek climate ranged cold to temperate heat. The climate encouraged outdoor activitie s and as result architecture evolved lo gatherings. Most public ceremonies place in courtyards or open The worshipped natural The were personification of or were deified heroes, for is the God, ruler of the sky: wife of Zeus is Goddess marriiige: is the God of law, art, music and poetry. founder of cities while Athe'na is the of wisdom and learning.

5 of Construction Architecture was essentially columnar and trabeated. The construction system was and the Greeks never used dome, vault and roof truss. The structural spans were small and the system of triangulation was known to them. The study of theoretical mechanics hardly began before the 3rd century so there is no theoretical understanding of structure and little sign of empirical knowledge either. The Greeks also knew of the double cantilevers, with two balancing each other either side of a central support. They also corbelling where successive horizontal courses project out until the opening is bridged. In early buildings timber was used profusely for columns and entablature with terracotta decoration on the beams but later the entire assembly was converted into stone. The timber was replaced superb exactness in stone and for this Greek is also called "Carpentery in marble". Often the temples were a ceiling or a roof. Whenever a roof was provided a coffer was made underneath. Blocks of stone were laid without any cement and relied on their weight and carefully fitted joints for stability. Metal clamps and dowels were used for good joinery. A special feature of Greek masonry is that it was laid with an allowance of stone the intended face the whole surface was dressed down when the building was completed. Architectural History Figure 3.5:Orders Greek Architecture used two original 'orders' namely Doric and Ionic. An order basically assembly or conventional entablature which it supports. The Doric and Ionic have come from two Greek races of Dorian and Ionians evolved these orders. The third order Corinthian, a purely decorative variant was invented by the Hellenic Greeks and attained its full expression during the period. order to obtain a desired visual effect, the Greeks tried several methods to optical illusion. The long horizontal lines of stylobates, architraves and which are straight in reality would have appeared to the eye to drop or sag in the of their length, were formed with slightly convex outlme. A optical correction was used on column shafts where the central portion swelled outwards and tapered off towards the top a curved effect known as. entasis. Building Types -- The temples. the civic buildings such as Agora, Theatres, and Domestic buildings are the major building types in Greek Architecture. The characteristic form of Greek Temples emerged in the 8th Century BC. The temple was not a place for congregational worship since the animal sacrifices which formed the major part of the ritual took place outside. temple building was simply the house of the divinity holding the cult statue and the precious dedications. the development of Greek Architecture had little to do with either structure or it did not internal space and precisely due to this external form dominated the scene. I

6 Architecture: Principles and Figure 3.6: Parthenon The most famous Greek temple is the Parthenon, the house of the Greek Goddess Virgin Atliena Patthenos. Located on Acropolis (top of a hill), other temples and buildings, Parthenon was built between 447 to 432 BC. It followed the traditional Greek Doric order. The temple is raised on a three stepped stylobate, rectangular in plan, surrounded by a colonnade and supported a gable roof. Civic architecture dominated Greek cities. They were a group of buildings namely, the Agora, or the market place, Theatre, the stoa, the Prytaneu (Council chamber), tlie Law courts and the Record office. Some of the most prominent theatres are theatre of Dionysos at Athens and the theatre of Pompeii. The concept of Greek houses is derived primarily from the planned layouts of Macedonia, Priene and Delos. Most houses consisted of rooms opening into a courtyard on the south side so as to catch the winter sun. The houses were commonly built and brick with wooden post and tiled roof. For most Greeks, a house was little than a place to sleep. It is said that Greeks lived most of their waking life in the public sacred parts of the city. Hence, were and simple in scope SAQ 2 (a) Write in tour lines factors that Architccture. in one sentence the of Greek Architecture. Describe in short the of of Greek Architecture. What is an order How did the Greeks obtain Describe the building types in Greek Temples, Greek Describe orders in Greek Architecture. and lines corrections. Architecture Roman Architecture (300 BC 365 AD) The Roman Empire included the mainland of Italy, parts of Europe, North Africa and 26 West Asia. Most of Italy enjoyed a temperate climate but architecture

7 across the vast Roman evolved, adapting to the diverse climates and locations. Religion did not play a vital role in the life of the Romans and architecture was a response to the social way of life. Rome at an early period was by kings but later it became a Republic. After the victory at Pompeii, Julius Ceaser emerged as an undisputed of the Roman Empire. the death of in 14 AD came a line of famous emperors who were the greatest patrons of art and architecture. Romans were great law-makers and their sense of obedience, be it to liousehold or to the state has left a special mark on the world history. of the architecture is 'plastic' with use of rounded forms like the arch, vault and dome. Construction The Romans adapted the columnar and trabeated style of the Greeks and also developed the arch, vault and dome. This assembly of column, beam and arch is the keynote of Roman Architecture. The Greek orders were frequently used by the sometimes purely as a constructional feature or solely as decorative elements in Temples, Basilica and Forums. The building which led to great structural innovations was concrete. Domes, vaults and walls were frequently made in concrete. This concrete was a mixture of stone, brick rubble and mortar of which the important ingredient was finely pulverized volcanic earth. was a much superior substitute for sand and when mixed with lime and wetted produced mortar of great strength and tenacity. It was a compact monolithic, highly cohesive mass which set very hard even under water. The concrete exerted no lateral thrust so the dome of this concrete was as solid as a lead. Figure 3.7: arch played equally important role in the construction of Roman buildings. But the invention of concrete enabled Romans to build mighty vaults never till the introduction of steel the last century. In several cases, vaults were consuucted on brick ribs with concrete filling. Various types of vaults were used buildings namely the semi-circular, the cross vault and The semicircular vault or barrel vault was built on two walls. The cross vault was formed by two intersecting tunnel vaults for circular structures dome was used. Building Types The building types of Roman architecture were the fotums, basilicas, circuses, bridges, aquaducts and villas. The is a 27

8 open space surrounded by buildings in which people crowded, for commercial and private affairs. Its origins are mixed and can be traced to the development of the Agora in Greece. 3.8:Roman The genesis of the Roman temple lies in the early Greek temple. The early temples have survived till date because they were converted into Churches at a later date and maintained. Roman ability to cover large without intermediate columnar support can be clearly seen in the temples where spans of 15 m to m were quite common. temples were of two types. (a) rectangular, and circular or polygonal, and were built on a a flight of steps. The roofs were often of trussed timber, but some were vaulted and domed. The Rome, is a classic example of a temple. It is one of the first architectural monuments ever to be as an interior Figure : Basilica

9 Architectural Figure 3.10 : Pantheon (Plan and Section) The Roman basilica was both a hall of justice and a place for business transaction. The usual plan of a basilica The interior was divided by two rows of columns into a central nave and two es. tribunal opposite the entrance was on a raised dias generally in a semi-circular apse. The basilica has a simple, trussed timber roof or a vaulted structure which was either a barrel vault or a vault. were also a common features in many basilicas. While the forums and basilicas took care of more serious pursuits of Roman people, the public bath (Thermae) provided for their recreation outside. The thermae was not only designed for luxurious bathing but also served the function of a modern club as a place of a social life besides being used for lectures and athletic sports. Imperial baths provided the peo le with hot, cold and tepid pools. They offered other facilities l'ke dressing rooms, gymnasium, restaurants, baths and shady walks. The thermae, in short, were people's places where the citizens could enjoy together, exchange news and the latest gossip. The amphithcatres are found in every Roman towns, like Verona, and Rome. They were the setting for rather garish of entertainment including gory, gladiatorial contests between man and wild beast. The oval form of the Colosseuin could seat about 50,000 spectators at a time. Around its circumference ran some eighty archways which served so efficiently as entrances and exists that the colosseum could be emptied in a matter of minutes. The central arena was an oval surrounded by a wall behind which was a podium with the throne and seats. The dens for the wild beasts were beneath the lower tiered seating. The They were decorated. arches commemorated great military victories and other events. of one or three arches. The central archway was richly The Romans raised engineering to the level of art. By doing so they made utilitarian buildings such as bridges and aquaducts (Figure 3.11) both majestic and Aquaducts carried water from distant places to towns and cities and were kilometers in length and towered over the countryside. Aquaducts were built on arches in one, or three tiers. The water was carried in a cement lined channel which ran along the top. It was estimated that 1500 million litres of water flowed into Rome per day. Figure 3.11:

10 and Scope :Principles SAQ 3 State in one sentence the major characteristic of Roman Architecture. What was the new material invented and used by Romans What was the spanning invented and used by Romans Name the building types in Roman Architecture. was the function of the Roman Forum Name the famous Roman Temple. What is a Basilica What was the system of water supply in Roman Architecture 3.3 WESTERN ARCHITECTURE (300 AD 1300 AD) 33.1 Early and Romanesque Architecture 313 AD. Constantine himself issued an order that allowed Christians to their religion openly. After the the Roman Empire gradually isintegrated. Also by this time Christianity well in Europe. This brings us to an important era in architectural developments in Europe which was to prevail for several For centuries, the church has been the main building activity of European Architecture. Even today most of European towns are dominated by a centrally located church which gives a visible structure to the town. Early Christian period monumental is almost entirely devoted to churches cathedrals and other related buildings :Eady Christian Church Christians worshipped in private houses and catacombs in secrecy due to the ban on Christianity in Roman empire. Once Christianity became the established religion, churches became public places and as the power of church increased the buildings became more and more lavish. Church became the focal point of the medieval community. Since the prayers etc. required the congregation of large number of people, initially the Roman basilica were used to house the church. Gradually, as newer churches were commissioned, the Greek and Latin cross inspired a cross shaped plan. As a landmark, to draw attention a church building would often have a tower or a bell-tower. Large domes or spires were also used for giving prominence to the church The first building? specially intended as churches were built in the 4th century in Rome. mostly followed the pattern of basilica. A remarkable synthesis of the basilica scheme with the centrally planned church was demonstrated in Santa Sophia in Constantinople (Istanbul) built for Emperor Justinian (532 AD). The whole building is dominated by the immense dome over the centre of

11 the example of a dome covering a square area, the apses on the semi-domes, all pierced with windows, creating a richly The church was by two mathematician-architects were not only lor technical achievements but also made elaborate use to harmony in relating various spaces enclosed the different elements enclose (Istanbul) also refers as and the of Byzantine Empire, as 'BYZANTINE' style. Architectural TRANSVERSE SECTION By : Basilica of Constantine century AD, due to increasing stability in Europe and the growing power of were developments of monastic communities requiring many buildings and cathedrals. The communication between the religious 'ORDER' was so strong that it brought about some sort of in Although Lhere were strong regional variations, it is possible 1 century onwards to talk of a style throughout Europe. The basic characteristics of this style were that the buildings on forms, with extensive use of round The plainness coniplimented by the use of rich decorations. Interior surfaces were painting, porches, columns, whole facades were with they believed that church was house of God, should be as decorative as could possibly make carvings, and every sort of decoration. decorative style was at its peak in Europe during the of 12th of richly decorated church was also being criticised as luxurious a Some critics demanded purity and simplicity in the architecture of The to be on a mathematical and geometrical elements and types or permutation and combinations of continued a visibly style to be seen o f I century. how did early building came about characteristic features of Byzantine architecture seen in I the characteristic features of style 31

12 Architecture: Principles and Scope Gothic Architecture (1300 AD-1500 AD) The Gothic Architecture emerged in century AD with new territorial in Europe. The rise of France on to the political stage is in the history of Gothic architecture. If Romanesque is monastic and in the countryside, early Gothic architecture was primarily in urban settings, supported by secular church. The common and the took pride in their cathedrals. Cities gave more than of their revenue, year after towards the cost building them, but more was continually needed and city administrators to develop ingeneous methods of Sund-raising to meet these The Gothic Arcliitecture is characterised by the use of the Pointed Arch. the the walls reduced to minimum by spacious arcades. triforium by spacious clerestorey windows. The interiors of Gothic magnificent, give an impression of large volumes created by the height and the optical illusion produced by columns, arches, ribs and pointing upwards. o f the real features all 3.14: Gothic Arch Cowtruction 32 System of Construction In earlier Christian Architecture the downward load the roof super-structure was distributed over a walling system. As a and windows were kept relatively small in order to consequently the interior tended to be dark. In Gothic architecture, the entire structure was like a skeleton of piers, buttresses, arches and rib in equilibrium by the combination of oblique vertical forces each other. The rib vault made of a framework or stone ribs which support stone was an extension of the Romanesque which had Romans. The ribs were constructed as permanent supports and the thin panels were laid upon them. The function of the flying buttresses was to counter balance any outward thrust exerted on the walls. was to add weight and stability to the buttresses themselves. As the walls longer had to bear so much of the weight, they could be built much higher and with windows which allowed light to flood into the building. Some o f the were so large they reached almost from one buttress to another. Daylight coming through these huge windows have created a harsh perhaps in the minds of the builders, a too effect. To produce a pleasing suitable light, the craftsmen developed the stained windows. Building Types Cathedrals and monasteries were the religious buildings. But Gothic Architecture is manifested fully through buildings of cathedrals and churches. cathedral primarily served religious purposes, but it became a place of multipurpose activities. The nave of cathedral at times became a town where

13 the populace gathered for a meeting. The rich decorations on the cathedrals depicted not of christianity but also the history of the town and of the of its people. History View Figure 3.15: Dame, Paris (h) Section SAQ France was the of Gothic Architecture. The Dame (Figure 3.15) at Paris in France has a broad nave, spreads out to a width of 16 m, making it one of the spacious of all Gothic naves. On either side are amply propositioned aisles with their stained glass windows that allow a rich light. The plan reveals the Gothic has partically dispensed with walls. Instead of running parallel to the nave, the piers, vertically rising masonry supports are not at right angles to it and the between is bridged over with walls. The central nave was covered by a timber truss and was divided vertically into three parts, the nave arcade, the triforium gallery and the clerestory windows. The side aisles had an accessible triforium gallery overlooking the nave and was covered by a low timber roof. The wide spreading western faeace of Dame is the finest and most characteristic of Gothic It has three deeply recessed portals. with successive continuous bands of statued nitches. The central doorway divided by a pillar with a statue of Christ. This is surrounded by a central wheel - Rose window - 13 m in diameter which brings light inside to illuminate the choir, on the eastern te about the structural system of buildings. in a typical Gothic the in the interiors Gothic Cathedral was made 3.4 WESTERN (1400 AD-1800 AD) Renaissance Architecture (1420 AD 1600 AD) rebirth is commonly used to describe the great intellectual awakening which took place in Europe from the 14th to 16th centuries. They patronised and architecture and it was for the first time that architects, sculptors, and painters

14 Scope to be recognised by their names. One such Merchant was the family in encouraged Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael. lo others to pursue during time. The architecture is considered to have into in Italy. in came to replace Florence as the principal centre of artistic activity. this time that its influence began to spread throughout Europe. artistic revolution. it a total As a Renaissance architecture can be divided into two main Century Early Renaissance the 16th High Renaissance. In early Roman influence is apparent in the ornamentation of the buildings. renaissance, influence to the of the buildings as to their System of Construction renaissance architecture not outcome of structural system or largely a system derived from an ancient source. It was primarily a reversion to classical architectural forms. The preceding method construction and methods of building massively in were superseded by a refined and compact system during the Among the features they incorporated into their buildings were the Roman arch, the vault, the gable and the five orders : Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. Art was - goldsmiths, painters, sculptors architects. buildings wore pictures largely independent of structural necessity. Architecture of expression with beauty of design as idea. Building Types greatest buildings of the Renaissance were palaces. country churches, theatres etc. The chapel designed by Filipo Florence (1430 AD AD), architeclural gem is a brilliant of studies of ancient buildings are in evidence here. and the break with the Gothic tradition is spacing of the of the porch, the treatment the walls the of horizontal and vertical made prototype of the architectural style. The of building is the presentation the facade whereby the two portico are united by a central ' 34 Figure 3.16: Cathedralof Santa del Fiorc,

15 The Cathedral of Santa Marie Florence (Figure 3.16) is unique because of the blending of Gothic building and Renaissance dome on top of it. The dome designed by Brunelleschi, covers an octagonal space underneath. Generations of architects would be indebted to this dome for a synthesis of antique style and experimental resulted in a two-tiered structure, relatively light and self-supporting. It could be built in successive layers without the necessity of centering (as in Gothic Vaulting) and the major and minor ribs functioned as buttresses. For the first time, in the history of dome construction, a wooden hoop was introduced to prevent it from splitting outwards. This was tensile member used to bind the base of the dome. St. Peter, Rome (1506 AD AD) (Figure most important building of high period, is the work of many architects who worked on the project. Pope Julius took a ruthless decision of demolishing the old historic basilican church and decided to construct a great monument. A design competition was floated and Bramante won this prestigious project. After the initial work he was superseded by Giuliona da Sangallo, and later after his death Peruzzi and Sangallo junior worked on the project. Later, Michelangelo took over the and the present building is the result ot his talent and genius. Michelangelo accepted Bramant's Greek cross plan with a few alterations but he projected a loftier dome rising over the legendary site of St. Peter's tomb. Michelangelo's first problem was an engineering one - to find out if the masonry was strong enough to support such as dome. He had to reinforce the four piers until each was a massive 60 ft (18.3 m) square. Pendentives became the by which the square understructure was encircled and then the cylindrical drum raised. Meanwhile. he made a large model of a dome itself. so that it could be built by others in case of his death. All the preparatory work was thus completed and Michelangelo lived just long enough to see the drum finished. The dome was completed after his death by two of his associated. Later, Bernini designed and built the Piazza of St. Peters which is surrounded by 284 columns in the Tuscan order. Figure 3.17: St. Peters, Rome villa Capra, known as "La Rotonda" near by Andrea Palladio and Viccenzo Scamozzi. This outstanding piece of architecture was designed by Palladio around the mid sixteenth century. It is absolutely symmetrical, and open to the on all sides, with facades on a classical temple, and imposing dome. achievement here is a house is spacious but simple in plan. 35

16 Architecture: and Scope SAQ 6 (a) State the main the term"renaissance". influenced Renaissance Atchitecture. State in four lines the salient features of system of construction of huildings. the architect who pioneered Renaissance Architecture. What are the building types in Renaissance Architecture Write in brief on the design and constructional aspects of St. Peter in Baroque Architecture (1600 AD 1760 AD) Baroque means bizarre, fantastic or any form with irregular shapes and lines. It is a term applied to design and architecture during the late renaissance period (1600 AD AD) after the stages of learning and experiment renaissance had reached a characteristic, non-roman, rich, bold and vital style. The baroque expression can be seen in several countries in Europe, especially Italy, France, Germany, Spain, Holland, Austria and Belgium. The distinguishing mark of the Baroque is the method of thinking feeling that prevails in it: its outstanding feature is the unification of paint, sculpture. architecture, optical theory and all minor arts in achieving harmony and a unified whole. The Baroque architecture is characterised by exuberant decoration, expansive curvaceous forms, a sense of mass, a delight in large scale and sweeping vistas and preference for spatially complex compositions. \ System of Construction The introduction of integral calculus in mathematics led to the development of the use of warped planes and third degree curves. Use of stucco as plastic is also a hallmark of baroque expression. The love for ornamentation can be clearly seen in baroque buildings where the traditional use of brickwork had endowed architecture with intrinsic and small scale details. and colours were manipulated to induce concentration. The visual devices had the main objective of providing highly enriched play of flow of form, usually multiform rather than single. Thus, Baroque architecture is grand, vigorous, robust, and very decisive in its effect. Building Types The major building types of the Baroque age are both religious and secular churches, palaces, castles. The emphasis was also laid on city planning and, at level. The foremost expression in church architecture during this period is the church of Gesu in Rome, designed by Giacomo Vignola and Giacoma Porta. This building served as a prototype and different versions variants of the same were built at many places in Italy and Europe. Borromini's San Alle Quattro Fontane is one of the original exprsssions of this time. Turning to full advantage the small site at the intersection of two streets with a fountain at each of the four comers, the architect a plan that embraced a complex interplay of geometric shapes. The first large open space within a city- in contrast to the:enclosed renaissance square was the Piazze Oblique (the oval place) of St. Peter's in Rome designed by Lorenzo In this complex, three elements are the old plaza, the rectangular plaza and the body of the church with the dome crowns it. oval open space framed by massive four fold doric colonnades encompassed the pizza as if they are the two embracing arms. 7 (a) What do you understand by the term "Baroque" 36 Name the countries where Baroque expression flourished.

17 (c) Highlight the system of construction of Baroque Age. (d) in four lines use of forms arid lines in Baroque building. (e) blame the major building types. Architectural History th AND 20th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE Modern Architecture Throughout the century there were attempts by architects at large (specially in Europe) to produce a non historical style which had significant influences on 20th century architecture. Modem Architecture was evolved around late 19th century to reconcile an idealized vision of society with the forces of Industrial Resolution. While it to drastically breakaway the past, it also allowed the basic principles of be revised. Modern Architecture was actually a reaction to what prevailed before as a liotch of revival of classical styles which was more limited to surface decoration on the otherwise changed methods and materials of construction. The major force in creation of modem architecture was the Industrial Revolution. It gave new methods of construction (iron), allowed new structural solutions and suggested new forms. In light of this a sort of split was apparent between Engineering and architecture -- with the former often appearing to be more inventive and answering the contemporary needs. Industrialisation transformed the very patterns of life, in new building types like railway suburban houses, skyscrapers, for which there was no precedent. Traditional architectural elements could no longer cover these new building forms logically. Mechanization affected the world of craft and caused the collapse of vernacular traditions. Figure 3.18: Crystal Palace, London In the year 1851 Crystal Palace designed by Joseph was built in for the first large scale world exhibition. It was the first great official building which had no reference whatsoever with the past styles. This building, 560 and 137 m wide used wooden supported by light tubular columns of iron girders and glass panels. All elements of structure and cladding were prefabricated with standardised, dimensions in a very short of three months and the whole building was assembled in just about a month.

18 Architecture: Principles and Scope Industrialisation also created new economic order in the society. The patronage o f shifted from religious organizations, rulers or the aristocracy to the new elites of the society as the aspiring middle class. The turn of the century saw the beginning of a style of architecture that soon spread throughout the world, overriding national barriers, traditions arid even fundamental political differences. Industrial revolution had already provided the wonder material 'iron' to architecture, now it could find its expression in a new style which was primarily functional, and which rejected the past over-decorative style of the past totally. This was the architecture of iron and reinforced concrete. It used, plain rectangular volumes devoid of all decorations. details were simple and elegant there was a deliberate attempt to create This was also termed as the style". Concrete had been employed by and early Christian architects but went out of use during the Middle age and Renaissance. In mid 19th century concrete to be used-again, primarily due to its cheapness, its capability to cover large its fire proof qualities. Reinforcing of concrete by steel rods was in 1870 to increase the strength of the structure and evolve frame system with thin lateral large beams. slim columns, slabs large windows. It was found very suitable work places and factories where large spaces were required. was found to he other materials and did not restrict or dictate like other materials. It relied completely on tlie shape of mould and the shaping intelligence of tlie Figure 3.19:Dom-ino Le Corbusier malleable character of concretes made it very suitable for form expressions as Art Nouveau or the decorative of the like of Gothic architecture. the after the World War, a rapid reconstruction of war-ravaged society in Europe a rapid system of construction of buildings, mainly for housing the urban masses, was inevitable. Le Corbusier introduced a basic concreted frame structure 'Dom-ino'. This was essentially a 6-point support concrete skeleton with slabs and concrete stairs connecting the various Such a framework for dwellings could be constructed within 3 weeks, then walls, partitions. doors windows etc. could be put as Apart catering to fast construction, this system, also provided the framework for simple, nun-decorative way of architecture. Once the basic clarity of structure was resolved, Corbusier and other architects went on to explore the aesthetic qualities of reinforced concrete as well. World War the International Style dominated the scene. Reconstruction all over Europe gave architects to work on projects on a very large scale. Large scale projects like Chandigarh Brasilia gave to demonstrate the new principles as well as planning concepts. The influence of Le and at tlie same time, a greater appreciation of the more expressionist in the much on architecture fifties and Forms were frees but was given to practical functions. Contemporary art movements such as 'de still', cubism, construction' and pop art-also had their on architecture. By now architects over world exploring with new vocabulary in design of buildings which apart from criticism, explored spatial concepts of interpenetrating planes and abstract and looked for a aesthetic expression

19 based on tlie modern materials methods of to the of simplicity of International style give meaning character to building. extraordinary capabilities provided by new technology opened up new possibilities for expressions. The severity over of the International style wliicli came as a great from the over styles of the past, has now itself Architects now are looking for some decorative to overcome this boredom of simplicity give some meaning and to building. to improving on tlie simplicity by it less simple. or worst still, try style traditional architectural elements, to seduce public opinion have now disfigured cities the world. does necessarily niean is not always for hetter. Tradition is not old fashioned and is not synonymous with stagnation. Tradition is the of personal in art the same effect of tlie artist and decisions so that he can give his to tlie vital ones. is work ever for architects, an a greater scale, yet there are so more considerations to be kept in They to design public buildings provide good working but also satisfactory living areas and good environment taking the problems posed by automobiles need for transport facilities. The restrictions and requirements of developers, administrators, social activities, politician, conservationists and also to be considered. to be open. Will see of industry taken to its logical in some sort of plug in '! A urban environment. built science style using tensile and geodesic or uses solar to energy recycling techniques to meet the demands of environment crisis t'ulure SUMMARY history o f Prehistoric. Creek. Gothic, Baroque features of : in sought shelter in rockcaves. design prehistoric shelter buildings are

20 Architecture: and Scope Egyptian The progress of civilization can be traced by men's journey from the caves to the early form of dwellings built by using materials obtained from the immediate environment. Egyptian architecture is monumental in character. Religion and belief in life after death led to the making of elaborate, gigantic Temples and Pyramids. Stone was extensively used in Egyptian buildings because of its abundance and local availability. The columnar and trabeated method of construction evolved out of the characteristics of stone. Roman Gothic Architecture Greek architecture is columnar and trabeated. Early greek buildings were made of timber but later buildings altered their in stone, largely marble.. The two orders, Doric and Ionic dominated the expression in Greek architecture. The Greek were conscious of visual effects and hence adopted optical correction to their buildings. Greek architecture evolved as a response to climate and even their life styles were oriented towards outdoor life. Building types in Greek architecture were a reflection of socio-cultural life of the Greeks. The Arch, Vault, dome and roof truss were the tlie of in Roman architecture. The Corinthian and Tuscan Order alongwith Denic and Ionic dominated expression in Roman Architecture. The invention of concrete led to great structural innovations. Domes. Vaults Walls were frequently in concrete. Building types reflect the social life of the Roman. For example, Colosseum, were places of mass congregation. The great for transportation of water over large distances were feat of engineering skill. Gothic architecture primarily evolved in the urban setting. The characteristic features of Gothic architecture are the pointed Arch. rib vault, flying buttress, triforium gallery, rose windows The flying Buttress of the Romanesque builders got fully evolved Gothic period. rib vault was a framework of ribs with of stone panels.. The reduction of wall and the convergence of ribs capitals enabled large glazed of stained glass. The major building types were cathedrals, churches, France was the of Gothic expression Paris is the landmark of Gothic architecture. Renaissance Architecture Renaissance architecture was basically a revival of earlier classical architecture of Greeks and Renaissance architecture flourished in Florence in first of 15th century and pervaded all over the Italian peninsula by of century. architecture did not address any particular or construction methods but stressed on the use of such as vault and dome, gable roof and the 5 Roman orders as decorative elements. tlie

21 SAQ 3 SAQ 4 The major building types of Renaissance architecture are palaces, churches, theatres, country villas etc. Michel brought Renaissance architecture to its zenith with fusion of paint sculpture and architecture. This is well seen in the St. Peters at Rome. Architecture architectureis a continuation of Renaissance with on decoration and curvilinearforms leading to a sense of movement. The major buildings type are churches, palaces and castles. Architecture In 19th century (later part) architects in Europe were trying to evolve a historic style. gave new materials like iron and reinforced concrete which made large span structures possible and also newer could be conceived. Corbusier proposed a new, faster method of construction, contemporary art movements and also gave new directions to architectural vocabulary. Initially, modem strived for simplicity which in itself proved to be boring and monotonous. Contemporary architects are now looking for more creative and decorative expressions in buildings using the newer technology and materials. ANSWERS TO 1 (a) Refer Section (b) Refer Section (c) Refer Section (d) Refer Section (e) Refer para under "System of Construction" of Section Refer para under "Building Types" of Section (i),(ii) and 2 (a) Refer Section (b) Refer Section Refer para under"building Types" of Section (c) Refer para under "System of Construction"of Section (d) Refer para under "System of Construction"of Section Refer para under "System of Construction"of Section Refer para under "Building Types"of Section Refer para under"building Types" of Section Refer Section Refer para under "System of Construction 7 'of Section Refer para under "System of Construction" of Section Refer para under "Building Types"of Section Refer para under "Building Types"of Section Refer para under"building Types" of Section Refer para under "Building Types" of Section Refer para under "Building Types" of Section Refer Section Refer Section

22 Architecture: Principles Refer and Scope SAQ 5 SAQ 6 SAQ 7 (a) Refer Section (c) Refer para under"system of Construction"of Refer para under "Building Types"of Section Refer "System of Construction" and "Building Types" of Section (a) Refer Section Refer Section Refer para under "System of Construction"of Section (d) Fillipp Brunelleschi. (e) Refer para under Types"of Section Refer para "Building Types" of Section (a) Refer Section (b) (c) Refer Section Refer para under "System of Construction" of Section (d) Refer para under of Construction"of Section Refer para under"building Types"of Section