THE NATURE OF SOURCES AND EVIDENCE TYPES OF SOURCES AVAILABLE

Transcription

1 THE NATURE OF SOURCES AND EVIDENCE TYPES OF SOURCES AVAILABLE THE LIMITATIONS, RELIABILITY AND EVALUATION OF SOURCES When evaluating archaeological sources, the following questions need be asked: Where was it found? Was anything else found with it? What material is it made from? Who made it and when? Why was it made and who used it? What does this source reveal about its society? When evaluating the perspective of written sources the following questions need to be asked: Who wrote this source? When was the source written? What was the motive for this source? Who was the audience for this source? What is the source about? What judgements are made and are they reliable? What does this source reveal about its society? The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 11

2 PRIMARY SOURCES FROM POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM Classical Writing (Literary) Appian Cicero Cato Dio Cassius Florus Livy Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Seneca Strabo Statius Tacitus Vitruvius Author History Type of Writing Speeches from a politician Geography History, wrote about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius History History Geography and Travel Letters writing specifically about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius as an eye witness Geography, wrote about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius Geography and Travel Poems History Architecture Artefacts (Material Remains) Mosaic. A picture or decoration made of different coloured pieces of stone, glass or other material, inlaid to form a simply or elaborate design. Usually mosaics appeared on the floor either inside or outside. Due to their intricate design and beauty they have become famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Fresco. A painting on either wet or dry fresh lime plaster so that the pigments are absorbed into the layers of the plaster. Usually frescos appeared on internal or external walls and incorporated pictures and designs. Due to their detail, mystery and beauty they have become famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 12

3 OTHER FORMS OF PRIMARY SOURCES Artefacts (Material Remains) Ephigraphical Writing (Literary) Buildings (Public and Private) (Archaeological) Organic Plant Products Public water fountains and water pipes Graffiti Thermopolium, Caupura Grain, farming, vineyard and orchard remains. Cooking equipment, eating utensils and ovens Slogans and Programmata Baths Remains of private gardens. Tools, Weights and measures Entertainment programs Amphitheatre Cooked food remains and meal remains, eg. bread. Work equipment Tomb epitaphs Temples and streetscapes Oil remains, Wine remains, and Perfume remains. Household shrines, statues and busts Wooden furniture (only at Herculaneum) Dedications in stone and bronze on buildings and statues Inscriptions on jewellery Private houses/units, Villas and Villa rustica Forum, Building of Eumachia and Macellum Farming equipment Foundation stones Odeon and Palaestra Human and Animal Remains Pottery and Columns Wax tablets and Proclamations Fullonica, Basilica Skeletal remains of humans and animals. Jewellery and Glassware Scrolls of papyri (only at Herculaneum) Taberna and Pistrinum Plaster and resin cast showing the shape of the body. The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 13

4 SECONDARY SOURCES ABOUT POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM Modern Secondary Writing Author Modern Contribution Giuseppe Fiorelli Vittorio Spinazzola Amedeo Maiuri Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (1994) Penelope Allison (1992) Lawrence Richardson (1988) Haraldur Sigurdsson (2002) Eva Cantarella and Luciana Jacobelli (2003) Sara Bisel (1990) Estelle Lazer (2005) Director of archaeology at Pompeii and Herculaneum Director of archaeology at Pompeii and Herculaneum Director of archaeology at Pompeii and Herculaneum British Archaeologist Australian Archaeologist Architectural Historian Volcanologist Archaeologists American archaeologist studying bones and bodies Australian archaeologist studying bones and bodies Revision Question: What can primary and secondary sources reveal about the Ancient Roman world? The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 14

5 THE EVIDENCE PROVIDED BY THE SOURCES FOR POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM FOR: Society was made up of: Free born men Free born women THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE Men who were freedmen from slavery Women who were freed from slavery Male and female slaves Children were born into the class of their parents. The legal unit was the familia it included everyone who lived within the household, (domus), both free and slave. The paterfamilias was the male who was in control of the household. Rome operated under patriarchal rules. The hierarchy of society was based on wealth. For this reason a client/patron was an important relationship to generate wealth through trade. This was a relationship that was fostered within private houses and then in public spheres. Freedmen had an important relationship with their previous masters under the client/patron relationship. A free woman is thought to have been able to own their own property as they were technically under the control of their father, rather than their husband. Some women were thought to be involved in crafts and commerce. Slaves are thought to have made up at least 40% of the population within these towns. Slaves were in all spheres of life including the household, working on farms and estates, working in freedmen s workshops. The treatment of a slave depended on the master. Female slaves were not permitted to marry without the permission of their master. Revision Question: Who in society was the paterfamilias and why was he so important? The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 15

6 THE ECONOMY The economy was dominated by the natural resources and trade was of those goods and products from those resources. Trade of fresh food and produce was conducted within the public space of the forum. Fish and meat was sold in the Macellum. Grade was sold in the Olitorium. Within the Eumachia building wool and cloth was sold. Throughout the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum specialty shops (thermopolium) existed for people to purchase products such as at a pistrinum (bakery) and fullonica (laundry). Taverns, wine bars and hot food take away shops and snack bars were also popular. Workshops (tabernae), often opened onto the street and included industries such as pottery, weaving, carpentry and cobblers. Occupations within the towns included; bakers, bankers, bath attendants, builders, carriage drivers, cloak seller, dyers, engravers, gem cutters, farmers, fullers, grape pickers, garum sauce makers, goldsmith, herdsmen, innkeepers, onion sellers, priests attendants, prostitutes, scribes, spinners, tanners, theatre officials and wagoner. Revision Question: Describe the natural products of the region and explain how they underpinned the Roman economy. The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 16

7 LOCAL POLITICAL LIFE AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS The political life of Pompeii resided in the civic buildings of the Forum complex. The local government followed the system established throughout Rome. Roman male citizens over the age of twenty five are thought to have the privilege of voting. Numerous political graffiti and slogans have been uncovered at both Pompeii and Herculaneum. The Executive Board (Quattuorviri) was comprised of two men in the role of Duoviri and two men in the role of Aediles. All of these men served in these positions for only one year. Every five years instead of electing Duoviri, Quinquennales were elected to carry out a census. The role of the Duoviri was to administer justice in criminal and civil cases. Gave out sentences and collected fines. This thought to have happened in the Basilica. The role of the Aediles was to administer and maintain public spaces such as streets, Temples, Macellum, Olitorium, markets and sewerage systems. They also need to maintain public order. The City Council (Ordo Decurionum) was made up of approximately one hundred leaders of the community, (Decuriones), these men were magistrates for life based on their wealth and status within the community. They debated on administrational issues of the towns including the finance, religious and public issues. The Decuriones were able to wear the purple edged toga and had reserved seats in public places and entertainment. The People s Assembly was comprised of all eligible male citizens over the age of twenty five and included the lower classes. They voted on the election of the Duoviri and Aediles. They voted on proposals by the Ordo Decurionum. They could also join together to vote in guilds. Revision Question: The political organisation within Pompeii was complex, what does this suggest about Roman society? The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 17

8 EVERYDAY LIFE People living in Pompeii and Herculaneum enjoyed their leisure through sport, entertainment and dining. Men and women enjoyed going to the public baths. (Municipal Thermae). Going to the Amphitheatre to see spectacles such as gladiatorial concerts and animal hunts was very popular. Swimming, athletics, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing was practised in the Palestra by young men and those in the military. Theatre and drama appears in many mosaics and frescoes suggesting that it was very popular. Herculaneum has a theatre that could seat about 2500 people while the large theatre in Pompeii could seat about 5000 people. Pompeii also had a small covered Odeon theatre which could seat about 1300 people. Traditional drama, musical recitals, mime and pantomime is thought to be on stage. The huge amount of inns and taverns suggest that drinking and eating out was also popular. Gambling involving animals such as cock fighting and dice was also a popular form of entertainment. Dinner parties within the private household followed a strict formal format and etiquette. The dining room was the usually a highly decorated room, as a dinner party was an important way for a patron to boast his wealth to his clients through the number of slaves, luxury items (such as the silver and glassware), the extravagance of the food and wine served in the banquet and the entertainment. Revision Question: Describe the different ways that people in Pompeii and Herculaneum spent their leisure time. The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 18

9 PRIVATE BUILDINGS As is the case today, individual Romans decided on the decoration and layout of their private housing. The practicalities of physical space, functionality, individual tastes and the fashion of the time do impact on the final house construction found within both towns. However the decoration suggests that symmetry was admired. The common features within many private houses included: Vestibulum (entrance area to a private house). Atrium (open space, central public space of Roman house and centre of religious and social activity). Compluvium (square cut hole in the roof of a private house within the atrium to provide light, air, water). Impluvium (the shallow pool which collected rain water under the compluvium). Lararium (private shrine of household gods). Tablinum (public reception area of the atrium where household records are kept). Triclinium (formal dining room in private homes containing three couches). Culina (the kitchen). Cubicula (at night a bedroom for sleeping, during the day may have been used for other functions). Latrines (household toilet). Peristylium (a colonnade around an outside private garden). Broadly Brennan and Lazer recognise three periods in housing construction; pre- Roman (Samnite) Period, Roman 1BC and Roman AD1. The streetscape of houses is without grandeur. Within one insula there may have been different standards of living coexisting. Wallace-Hadrill s work suggests that the housing was used as a status symbol to others, hence those houses with elaborate decoration and luxury indicates the wealthy social status of the owner. These houses and villas could huge in size and include extravagance such as marble floors, elaborate mosaics and frescoes, statues, terraces, expansive gardens, grottoes, water displays, and even private baths. Some villas were purely for leisure (otium), these were often in Herculaneum and designed to take in the views. In the more elaborate villas and houses there is evidence of Hellenistic influence from Greece and Egypt in the form of mosaics, sculptures and other decorations. The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 19

10 Some houses had undergone maintenance; remodelling and others had fallen into disrepair. Some houses had been changed into places of industry, eg. such as a fullonica. Many wealthy houses had rented/tenanted street facing rooms as shops, workshops and small industry spaces. Many poorer people actually resided within the work space or in a flat above the workshop. In the pagi (countryside) of the towns contain two different villas. A villa rustica has been identified as a working farm, while villas for the wealthy were built to take in the views and as a rural retreat. Historians have relied greatly on the primary evidence provided by Vitruvius (1BC) a Roman architect and engineer who wrote a ten volume handbook of building instructions, On Architecture. Revision Question: Outline the features of Roman housing and what this shows about Roman society. The School For Excellence 2016 Trial Exam Revision Lectures Ancient History Core Page 20