A STUDY ON ENVIRONMENTAL REGENERATION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION IN JAPAN AND THE UK

Transcription

1 The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, A STUDY ON ENVIRONMENTAL REGENERATION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION IN JAPAN AND THE UK Tomoko MIYAGAWA 1 1 Department of Environmental System, Faculty of Systems Engineering, Wakayama University, Sakaedani 930, Wakayama city, Wakayama , Japan, miyagawa@sys.wakayama-u.ac.jp Keywords: environmental regeneration, sustainability, urban regeneration, open space, partnership, Japan, UK Summary Due to the rapid transition of socio-economic structures, enlarging gaps between the localities, cities and regions have been anticipated to cause the differences of living environment by residential areas. To minimise the effects, area-based continual action may be necessary for meeting the local needs and residents by building partnership. The aim of this study is to examine and clarify the citywide frameworks and the characteristics of environmental regeneration activities in the process of urban regeneration by undertaking case studies of Kobe, Japan and Newcastle, UK, where both had an experience of decrease of population and recession of local industry. From the results, it became clear that in the case of Kobe, basic infrastructure such as roads and open space are importantly planned to rebuild and regenerate the community after the Hyogo Awaji Great Earthquake for disaster prevention. The process can be evaluated to establish supporting system on community development for continual community activities resulting to form a park management association. In the case of Newcastle, a range of programmes has been applied to promote environmental regeneration, one of them is the New Deal for Communities, has longer planning period in comparison to general planning frameworks, also may give significant effects on their revisions. In Westgate area, the approaches can be evaluated to form partnership between the residents and partner organisations including park user groups to involve residents from the plan-making period. 1. Introduction Due to the rapid transition of socio-economic structures, enlarging gaps between the localities, cities and regions have been anticipated to cause the differences of living environment such as the quality of life by residential areas. To minimise the effects, area-based continual action may be necessary for meeting the local needs and residents by building partnership. Recently, Japan had recently introduced the Act for Special approach on Promoting Urban Regeneration to commence the urban regeneration programmes to tackle with decrease of population, declines of cities, and increasing unused/underused land. In areas affected by urbanisation and industrialisation to have lost the natural environment, environmental regeneration activities has been undertaken. Moreover, in the cities where rebuilding after the natural disasters have a greater emphasis on roles and importance of open space, particularly to increase its defensibility. At the local level, these areas tend to have a continuous public participation in the process of making planning, design, and management. These locally based activities can be said as to have a potential for higher public interests and may contribute to improve the quality of life, and sustainable urban regeneration. At the global scale, sustainability in urban regeneration has become more emphasised, which can be seen in the evaluation method on measuring urban regeneration performance to include sustainability aspects (e.g. Hemphill et al., 2004). To promote further action, it may be important to examine the sustainable way forward from the social, economic, and environmental aspects at this stage. 1.1 The definitions of environmental regeneration and partnership Miyagawa (2004-1) defines Environmental Regeneration to rehabilitate the environmentally damaged areas due to the past human activities to result in changes of the landuse and the environmental quality, or to create new open space, such as parks, rivers, and woodlands stated in Japanese City Planning Law (1968). This study follows the definition to include the aspects of new creation of open space, due to the arising problems for management, and landuses or environmental changes, which are difficult to rehabilitate to the past environmental quality

2 Until present, urban regeneration may have had emphasis on encouraging the deregulation for increasing private investment, however, in large context, it also may involves planning processes, coordination of locally based organisations, and building capacity of the communities (e.g. Miyagawa, ). In addition, a number of urban regeneration projects and plans include such elements as to improve and manage the environment, and environmental regeneration. Therefore, this study describes sustainable urban regeneration by incorporating social, economic, and environmental aspects on its plan and achievements. According to Baily and Barker (1995), partnerships was introduced in UK since the late 1970s to coordinate the central and local government, and had become a much greater movement in the 1980s to include private companies, which is notably represented by Enterprise Zones and Urban Development Corporations. It is described that partnership has critics on its ambiguity and no legal definitions, it is generally recognised to be the only way forward to undertake urban regeneration, due to the merit of widening partners and resources for the projects and reducing the risk. Since the 1990s, the partnership had shifted towards the public to establish City Challenge and Single Regeneration Budget through public private partnership by focusing on the residents and local areas in UK (e.g. Miyagawa et al., 2004). However, one of the most recently introduced programme, New Deal for Communities (NDC), described as one of the most ambitious area based initiatives, is facing the difficulties of involving the community, building partnership, and the complex mechanisms of the initiatives, which may lead to the discussion of the limitations of the programme deriving from the effects of institutional factors (e.g. Lawless, 2004). O Malley (2004) describes the complexity on forming a partnership in the regeneration process, such as the local organisation opposition to decision by partnership may risks holistic or strategic approaches. The partnership is then undermine a period of institutional instability and the future is uncertain, thus suggestion is given for shaping the new way forward and the change of present system (e.g. Davies, 2004). Although it demonstrates the active discussion on partnership and more is to be explored, at present, it is a widely practiced form or system from planning to environmental regeneration, and management of open space and rural area. Therefore, it may also be important to note the discussion in terms of achieving sustainable urban regeneration. This study defines the partnership to include various partner organisations, such as public organisations, private companies, residents, NPOs, and voluntary organisations. 1.2 Methods and Objectives A number of research has been publicized on urban regeneration and environmental regeneration in the field of architecture and planning, notably, evaluation of residents and citizens participation, evaluation of urban regeneration performances, analysis of partnership patterns, planning process of projects or strategies/plans, methods and systems on rehabilitation of natural environment, planning process of environmental regeneration, and Japan-UK comparison of systems on environmental regeneration. However, the examination of detailed case studies to illustrate present practices of both countries on environmental regeneration in coordination to urban regeneration is yet to be explored and may be necessary for further research in order to seek for the way forward towards sustainable urban regeneration. This study tries to compare and contrast with UK, where has been building locally based partnerships with a variety of stakeholders to meet with local needs including environmental regeneration activities since the 1970s. The aim of this study is to examine and clarify the citywide frameworks and the characteristics of environmental regeneration activities in the process of urban regeneration by undertaking case studies of the areas of Nagata, Kobe, Japan and Newcastle, UK, where both had an experience of population decrease and recession of local industries. The methods of the study are a literature review and interviews to local governments, in August 2004 at Kobe City Office, and in September 2003 at Newcastle City Office. 2. Case of Kobe, Japan This section is to examine environmental regeneration in relation to urban regeneration in the process of Reconstruction Land Readjustment Project in areas of Nagata, Kobe, where is one of the most affected places by the Hyogo Awaji Great Earthquake. According to Department of Land Readjustment, Kobe City Planning Head Office (2004), the project (143.2ha) has been introduced in 1995 to rebuild and regenerate the area at the same time with Redevelopment Project (25.9ha). On March 17 of 1995, the town planning decision has designated locations for roads and open space as the main features of the plan, and other features of smaller roads and open space is determined by Community Development Local Act (introduced in 1981, enacted in 1982), the firstly introduced local acts of such kinds in Japan. At present, of all districts of eleven, the five have already completed, while the six have been undertaking the projects. This study is to focus and examine one of the largest areas, North District of Shin Nagata Station. 2.1 Outline of the project in North District of Shin Nagata Station Reconstruction Land Readjustment Project in North District of Shin Nagata Station was introduced since 1995, which has been undertaking by the City of Kobe as the project manager in the same manner to other project areas by forming partnership of community development group by the residents and specialists on community development. The district is located in the north part of Shin Nagata Station has an area of 59.6ha, divided into two parts, one is North Shin Nagata Area (designated in 1995) and the other is North

3 Takatori Area (designated in 1997), and in between these areas, Second East Takatori Area is located. In Comprehensive Structure Plan of Kobe City, this area is planned as the Western Sub City Centre. North Shin Nagata Area (42.6ha) has a mixture of landuse of housing (50%), commercial (20%), and industrial (30%). Before the earthquake, the major industry was making chemical shoes, known as the local industry. Housing was built in the smaller sized land, less than 65 square metres, having a share of 65% in number and 23% in area of all. However, urban facilities such as roads and open space have been limited to small areas. Materials provided from Department of Land Readjustment, Kobe City Planning Head Office (2004) states the area had damaged nearly 80% by the earthquake. The area had a population of 7587 with 3267 households before that, but since the earthquake, it decreased down to 5762 with 2719 households (1st of July, 2004) at present. In addition, the effect of the nationally recession of socio economic situation and local industries has been anticipated to the local economy in the area. North Takatori Area (17ha) was previously developed as Takatori Factory of Japan Railways, which had been included as the project area after the relocation of the factory. In the same manner in neighbouring Second East Takatori Area and North Shin Nagata Area where had started earlier, it is planned to develop reconstruction of housing (cooperative housing and social housing) and Disaster Prevention Centres. From these backgrounds, the area has strategically focusing on acting for disaster prevention, including fire preventive water tanks of 100 tons and planning for roads and open space. The project has been undertaken by applying Japanese City Planning Law (1968) and Land Readjustment Law (1954). For the cost regarding on securing the land for open space, Common Facility Mangers Share Fund had been allocated in relations to Land Readjustment Law. 2.2 The process of community building Kubo and Doi (2001) evaluates the methods of plan making process of North District of Shin Nagata Station by the Land Readjustment Project as the Cooperatively Work Approach, in terms of community development support function for citizens agreement on townscape shaping. The area has been promoting the project by Community Development Local Act. In the past, twenty-one community development groups had been established and managed. But just in the time of aftermath of the earthquake for ten years, eighteen groups are currently managed. It is managed by the representatives mainly from housing and townscape working group, commerce and industry working group, and events working group by forming working groups by a various themes. The members meet once a month or two months to promote the community development to discuss and study about the theme, and to produce and deliver updated news. Within the area, on site advising office has been located in the same manner to the other areas. Moreover, when making the materials for study meeting or examining the community development plan, four specialists on community development has been sent to the area by Kobe Housing and Community Development Human Resource Centre which is established in 1995 to support the community development and to meet with the local needs. Until present, the project had changed over eighty times, which also may suggest the flexible community based process. 2.3 The process of planning and creating open space In the plan for open space in the area, North Shin Nagata Area has a layout by locating neighbourhood park, Mizukasadori Park in the middle of the area, and four street parks are planned around it. In addition, the symbol road of 14 meter width to the north and the south, and to the east and west, is planned by stretching Table 1 The layout plan of parks (referencing Materials provided from Department of Land Readjustment, Kobe City Planning Head Office (2004) Classification of parks North Shin Nagata Area (42.6ha) North Takatori Area (17ha) Neighbourhood parks Mizukasadori Park (10000 m2 ) Western Bank Park of Myohoji River (17000 m2 ) Street parks Mizukasadori West Park (2500 m2 ) North Takatori Station Park (2500 m2 ) Kawanishidori Park (1500 m2 ) Oyashikidori Park (1496 m2 ) Hosodacho Park (1100 m2 ) Total area of parks 16,596 m2 19,500 m2 Total area of parks/ total area Sum of parks of two areas against sum of two areas 166/4,260a 3.9% 361/5,960a 6% 195/1,700a 11.5%

4 out from Mizukasadori Park (Table 1). The road has just 3.5 metres for the cars, and the rest is planned for creating greenway and space for streams. North Takatori Area has a plan to create a large scaled neighbourhood park, Western Bank Park of Myohoji River in the west side, and a street park, North Takatori Station Park to be located in the east side (Table 1). The area has a percentage of open space excluding the planting areas of greenway, North Shin Nagata Area for 3.9%, North Takatori Area for 11.5% respectively. Thus, in total, it became clear that the area has open space of 6% in all, which is doubled the amount of targeted value of 3% by Land Readjustment Project. The Mizukasadori Park is planned as the core of the area, and partly has temporary built houses. The work had been proceeding in coordination with the whole project by starting the land reclamation, and it is going to be created in the next three years of 2005 to The workshop sessions for the plan of the park had been taken place for twice until now, and four more to be planned. At present, the park has been opened for the public as a temporary park, and has temporary created open space for sports, play equipments, and flowerbeds. The park has a locally based park management association through the workshop, and managing the park by volunteering, such as to water the plants and litter picking. 3. Case of Newcastle, UK The City of Newcastle is known as the post industrial city and the northeast regional capital, where had been undertaking urban regeneration initiatives since the 1970s. In the case of Newcastle, a range of programmes such as NDC ( ), Housing Market Renewal Pathfinder ( ), and Heritage Lottery Fund ( ), has been applied to promote environmental regeneration in urban parks and open space. Simultaneously, outline policies of citywide Urban Regeneration Strategy ( ), Going for Growth, focuses on examining gentrification by the large scale demolition and rebuilding of existing low demand housing areas to rebalance the differences between the localities and to increase population in declining areas (e.g. Cameron, 2003, Miyagawa, and ). In addition, Newcastle s Parks and Green Space Strategy ( ) presented overall open space management, creation, conservation and biodiversity network, and Local Neighbourhood Renewal Strategy, The Newcastle Plan ( ), called the community plan, revises all plans produced by the city in terms of residents and citizens. This study will focus on NDC, promoting environmental regeneration in coordination with urban regeneration. The NDC is planned in the longer term in comparison with the existing planning framework, such as Local Transport Plan ( ) and the former Unitary Development Plan (UDP; ; to be replaced by the currently being developed Local Development Framework ( )). NDC is a ten-year funding government programme for local authorities, introduced under the Neighbourhood Renewal Fund in 1998 to regenerate one of the most deprived communities and neighbourhoods in terms of crime, education, health, employment patterns, and housing. The programme enabled the nearly even distribution of funding to direct investment to the community (by education, and job training/creation), as well as providing community infrastructures and facilities to meet with the needs in the localities and residents. Furthermore, it undertake projects by building partnership to include residents, citizens, local government, private sector, residential groups and NPOs, and supports the community to participate and manage projects on their own. According to the Neighbourhood Renewal Unit Homepage (2004), the first round has designated 17 areas, and the second round has designated 22 areas, therefore, 39 areas have been designated in total. This section is to examine environmental regeneration in relation to urban regeneration in Westgate area in the City of Newcastle in the process of NDC. 3.1 Outline of the project in Westgate area The project in Westgate area in the city of Newcastle has been designated in 1998, and commenced the project in 2000, which is managed by the Newcastle City Council and NDC Office. The NDC office has a role to coordinate and building a partnership with residents with other partner organisations such as relevant departments of city council, housing association, and the regional development agencies of One North East. In the UDP plan, the area is considered as mainly housing area adjacent to the city centre with some business use at the riverside, several industrial use, and two proposed new housing developments. The area has a population of 31503, in the area of 1100 hectares. It can be divided into 13 local areas, and largely be divided into 4 areas as follows. Area 1) Arthur s Hill has a large number of terraced houses in Tyneside style, built before 1919, facing the street but many of them are densely built without front gardens. This makes the area to have a high interest in open space and the environment. The area has a rich open space environment of open fields of Nunsmoor and Town moor nearby, and a range of open space of Nunsmoor Park, Nunsmoor Allotments, school grounds and burial grounds. Area 2) Bentinck Estate and Elswick Triangle have also a large number of terraced houses. Although some part of houses is built for wealthier families in 19 th century, however, renovation has been taken place to change the original features and atmosphere for some of the buildings. At present, wide ranges of ethnicity has been living in the area with small gardens. Thus, interests to open space are rather low. The priorities of tasks in this area are the children s playground at first, then to recreational facilities for young people.

5 Area 3) Rye Hill, BKW (Beechgrove, Kenilworth and Warrington), Jubilee Estate, and St. Pauls has a large number of similar types of housing as the area 2) to have houses for the wealthier families in the 19 th century. The area has Elswick Park and two parks for small children, therefore, open space in the area has a large concentration. The area has tasks for safety in the area, management, and patrols, therefore, prevention for crimes and vandalism in open space is considered as necessary. Area 4) Cruddas Park, Hawthorn Estate, Sycamore Estate, Waverley/Mather, College, and Elswick Wharf consist of council housing including high-rise buildings. The housing department at the city council manages the open space, and has a large proportion of open space. Although Cruddas Park has problems of safety and litter issues, open space in other areas has been maintained well. In addition, part of Area2, 3, and 4 is considered in Elswick Study, the regeneration plan of the area including the use and management of open space, in coordination with Housing Market Renewal Pathfinder programme in Newcastle Gateshead, and proposing the 65ha of housing area to be demolished for an grassed open space. 3.2 The Process of community building The area focuses on tasks at the local level, and forms six themes to produce detailed plans, such as, our area, job and business, homes and environment, crime and safety, health, and education. Out of these groups, homes and environment has produced housing strategy and open space strategy. In the open space strategy, Newcastle New Deal for Communities (2003) and Miyagawa (2004-2), it focuses on the roles of open space environment to promote solidarity and liveability in the area to undertake questionnaires, interviews, events for promoting participation and group consultations for residents in all households in the NDC area, all schools in the area, local companies, public organisations, and users of Elswick Park and Nunsmoor Park. The open space strategy is based on the results to meet with the needs in the area to clarify the way forward for open space and outside recreation policy and planning. The strategy aims to improve the quality of open space environment and possibilities, to provide high quality and adequate playground in the area, to promote recreational activities by all residents, to promote to improve open space environment for biodiversity. The prioritised tasks are to improve open space environment (117 ha) in the area within the ten-year project period, to provide open space environment by meeting the needs of the localities, to approach for the needs for the youth and the elderly, and to promote safety and the use of the area with open space environment. In plan making process, it clarifies the initiatives of quantitative and qualitative environmental regeneration in the area as well as to contributing to the citywide planning by coordinate with other related plans. 3.2 The Process of planning and creating open space In order to promote the strategy and the plan, initiatives has been undertaken to accomplish the aims and to reach the target level. A detailed data is collected at the local levels to meet with satisfaction by residents, as well as to clarify the present situation and objectives. It is aimed to increase satisfaction by residents from 30% to 40% in the year 6, 50% in the year 10, as well as to improve and rehabilitate open space environment of 30ha in the year 6, 50ha in the year 10. Each area has its own plan, such as Area 1) to regenerate Nunsmoor Park to promote safety and the use of the area, and to increase the resident s interests on open space; Area 2) to regenerate the whole area to improve the image and reputation of the area, and to revise the approach for the children and the youth; Area 3) to meet the needs of the area for recreation by creating Rye Hill into park and regenerating Elswick Park as a centre for the area and open space by focusing on safety, solidarity and connection; Area 4) to meet with the needs of the area for recreation to create open space for the youth and elderly in consideration of moving in and out of residents. The section is going to examine the project in Rye Hill and Nunsmoor Park, promoted by partnership of residents, and park user groups by the NDC office and the city council. Rye Hill is located in the hilly area, an open grassed field in front of housing area. It has already been used as an open space, however, the landownership is going to be transferred from housing department to city works to manage as a park. The plan had residents participation in plan making process with specialists such as architects to reflect opinions gained through the consultation with the residents and a park user group in the area. The work has been started to introduce new features such as fenced playground for children, seating area with a good surveillance over the playground, and space for sports including basketball and football. It also had new planting, cleaning and reshaping the fields. Nunsmoor Park used to be a church owned ground, then donated to the city and opened as a park after the work in It is located adjacent to the north of the city centre, and has features of grassed fields, old trees, and shrubs. It belongs to the city works and managed as a park. It is a popularly used park, and has an active park user group for undertaking events, as well as discussing the management and the future of the park. The regeneration plan of the park is to focus on historic character of the park. The work has been started in the park by new planting, paving, cleaning, reshaping the fields, and providing new street furniture, as well as the restoration of the entrance gate, and historical design feature of birdcage walk in the tree lined pavement. It has also plan of two new playgrounds, a shelter area for young people, a sports ground, and a new play centre to be placed in the future.

6 4. Conclusion From the results, it became clear that the Shin Nagata Station North Area, case of Kobe has been planning to redevelop and regenerate the community after the Hyogo Awaji Great Earthquake, a basic infrastructure such as roads and open space are importantly planned (6% of parks in total) for disaster prevention. The area has established a community development system, possibly deriving from the effects of the local culture of firstly established Community Development Local Act in Japan. It can be evaluated for supporting the community development activities to meet with the local needs, for example, by sending specialists to the area for plan making and setting on site office for providing updated information. Furthermore, it resulted to establish and manage community development groups by the residents, and the city works in partnership with residents, private sector, and specialists. In addition, continual community activities can be seen in the area, such as to form a park management association to take care of the temporary opened park. In the case of Newcastle, ranges of central government programmes have been applied to promote urban regeneration in the city. In terms of environmental regeneration, NDC approach has been undertaken by ten-year process in the longer term, in comparison to the general planning frameworks, which also may give significant effects on their revisions. In Westgate area, the detailed approaches by NDC can be evaluated to form partnership between the residents and partner organisations including park user groups to involve residents from the plan-making period to take into account of their opinions and needs. References Baily, N., and Barker, A.,1995, Partnership Agencies in British Urban Policy, UCL Press. Cameron, S., 2003, Gentrification, Housing Redifferentiation and Urban Regeneration: Going for Growth in Newcastle upon Tyne, Urban Studies 40.12, pp Counsell, D. and Bruff, G., 2001, Treatment of the Environment in Regional Planning: A Stronger Line for Sustainable Development?, Regional Studies 35.5, pp Davies, J.S., 2004, Conjuncture or Disjuncture? An Institutionalist Analysis of Local Regeneration Partnerships in the UK, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol.28.3, pp Department of Land Readjustment, Kobe City Planning Head Office, 2004, Town building towards safety and liveability. Hemphill, L., Berry, J., and McGreal, S., 2004, An Indicator-based Approach to Measuring Sustainable Urban Regeneration Performance: Part 1, Conceptual Foundations and Methodological Framework, Urban Studies, vol.41, No.4, pp Kubo, M. and Doi, K., 2001, An Evaluation of the Planning Process and Effects in the Reconstruction Land Readjustment Project with Cooperatively Work Approach -A Case of the Post-Earthquake Land Readjustment Project Area in Shin-Nagata Station North District (East Area), Kobe City-, Research Papers on City Planning, Journal of the City Planning Institute of Japan, No.36,pp Lawless, P., 2004, Locating and explaining area-based urban initiatives: New Deal for Communities in England, Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, vol.22, pp Materials provided from Department of Land Readjustment, Kobe City Planning Head Office, 2004, Kobe International Port City Construction Project, North District of Shin Nagata Station, Reconstruction Land Readjustment Project. Miyagawa, T , A Study on Acts and Planning of Environmental Regeneration with Local and Urban Regeneration in Japan and the U.K., IFPRA 2004 World Congress, Hamamatsu, Japan, September 8-10, pp. A-8-A. Miyagawa, T , Study on Environmental Regeneration with Urban Regeneration A case of West End in the City of Newcastle, the U.K., Summary of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting, Architectural Institute of Japan, F-1, pp Miyagawa,T., Awane, A., Nakayama, T., and Nakabayashi, H. 2004, Study on rehabilitation and management of natural environment by partnership in Manchester, the U.K., Journal of Architecture and Planning, Architectural Institute of Japan, vol. 577, March, pp Neighbourhood Renewal Unit Homepage, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004, Newcastle New Deal for Communities, 2003, Open Space Strategy Statement. O Malley, L., 2004, Working in partnership for regeneration - the effect of organisational norms on community groups, Environment and Planning A, vol.36, pp