INTRODUCTION TO NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Transcription

1 INTRODUCTION TO NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

2 INTRODUCTION TO NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING A Training Guide Second Edition PAUL E. MIX A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

3 Copyright 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) , fax (978) , or on the web at Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) , fax (201) , or online at Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) , outside the United States at (317) or fax (317) Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Mix, Paul E. Introduction to nondestructive testing : a training guide / Paul E. Mix. 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN (cloth) ISBN (cloth) 1. Nondestructive testing. I. Title. TA M dc Printed in the United States of America

4 This book is dedicated to the memory of Robert C. McMaster ( ) and Friedrich Foerster ( ), who were pioneers in the field of nondestructive testing and shared a common interest in electromagnetic testing. As a young engineer working for DuPont, under contract to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, the ASNT s Nondestructive Testing Handbook and CRC s Handbook of Chemistry and Physics quickly became indispensable reference sources.

5 Preface xxv 1 Introduction Digital Technology, Smaller Is Better, Medical Marvels, Improving Shuttle Safety, Airport Security, Process Control, Instrument Synchronization with PXI, PCI vs. PXI, ,000-Mile-High Elevator, Proliferation of Information, 12 2 Acoustic Emissions Principles and Theory, Signal Propagation, Physical Considerations, The AE Process Chain, Time Considerations, AE Parameters, The AE Measurement Chain, Coupling Agents, AE Sensors, 21 vii

6 viii Sensor Attachment, Sensor to Preamplifier Cable, AE Preamplifier, Preamplifier to System Cable, Vallen AMSY-5 High-Speed AE System, Frequency Filter, The A/D Converter, Feature Extraction, Transient Recorder, Data Buffer, Personal Computer and Software, Sensor Coupling Test (Autocalibration), Location Calculation and Clustering, Location Calculation Based on Time Differences, Clustering, Sample Analysis Screen, Visualization of Measurement Results, Advantages and Limitations of AE Testing, Advantages, Advantages of Using Operating Medium (Gas or Liquid), Advantages Compared to Other NDT Methods, Limitations, Location Errors, AMSY-5 Main Features, AE Transducers, Kistler Piezotron Acoustic Emission Sensors and Couplers, AE Sensor Construction, Summary of AE Sensor Features, Technical Specifications 8152B2 Sensor, AE Coupler Features, Technical Specifications 5125B Coupler, Input, Output, Acoustic Emission Technology, AE Applications, AE Theory, Applications, Behavior of Materials Metals, Ceramics, Composites, Rocks, Concrete, Nondestructive Testing During Manufacturing Processes, Monitoring Structures, Special Applications, 41

7 ix 2.23 Advanced Equipment, PCI-2 AE Unit, Key Features, PCI-8, 16-Bit, 8-Channel AE Unit, MicroSAMOS TM, Budget, Compact AE System, DiSP Systems, PCI/DSP-4 Card, Features of PCI/DSP-4 System Board, PCI/DSP-4 Board Operation and Functions, DiSP System Block Diagram, Other Company Products, Codes, Standards, Practices, Guidelines, and Societies, Sheer Numbers, Terminology, Common Term Definitions, General Principles, Measurement Techniques and Calibration, Areas of Opportunity, Application and Product-Specific Procedures, Impact-Echo Method, Background, Finite Element Code, Ball Bearing Generated Stress, Impact-Echo Transducer Development, Frequency Domain Analysis, Theory of Operations, Propagation of Waves, Impact-Echo Instrumentation, System Components, Heavy-Duty Carrying Case, Computer Recommendations, Technical Specifications, Hand-Held Transducer Unit, A/D Data Acquisition System, Windows-Based Software, Applications, 64 3 Electromagnetic Testing Method Eddy Current Theory, Surface Mounted Coils, Encircling Coils, Magnetic Flux Leakage Theory, Eddy Current Sensing Probes, 79

8 x 3.4 Flux Leakage Sensing Probes, Induction Coils, Hall Effect Sensors, Factors Affecting Flux Leakage, Signal-to-Noise Ratio, Test Frequency, Magnetization for Flux Leakage Testing, Coupling, Eddy Current Techniques, Instrument Design Considerations, UniWest US-454 EddyView TM, E-Lab Model US-450, ETC-2000 Scanner, Institut Dr. Foerster, Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing, Applications, General Eddy Current Applications, Specific Eddy Current Applications, General Flux Leakage Applications, Specific Leakage Flux Applications, Use of Computers, Barkhausen Noise/Micromagnetic Testing, Introduction, Early Applications, Principles of Measurement, Equipment, Technical Specifications, Calibration and Testing, Current Applications, Applications in Aircraft/Automotive/Marine Industries, General Applications, Pipe/Tubing/Sheet/Plate Manufacturing, Electromechanical Acoustic Transducers (EMATs), EMATs Advantages Over Piezoelectric Transducers, Basic Theory of Operation, Recent Applications and Developments, Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) Method, ACFM Principles of Operation, Bx and Bz Components, Butterfly Plot, Probe Design, Applications, 128

9 xi 4 Laser Testing Methods Introduction, Disadvantages, Main Advantages, Laser Theory, Laser Safety, Laser Classification, Training, Profilometry Methods, Stylus Profilometry, Optical Profilometry, White Light Interferometry, Basic TV Holography/ESPI Interferometry, Single Laser Operation, Camera Operation, Applications, Thermal Stresses, Quantitative Aspects of Mechanical Stress, Qualitative Aspects, Nanometric Profiling Measurements, Introduction, Autofocus Principle, Specifications, Sensor, Camera, Conoscopic Holography, Theory, Specifications, Confocal Measurement, Specifications, Sensor, Camera, NanoSurf Confocal Microscopy, Introduction, Standard Components, Options, D Confocal Microscopy, Principle of Operation, Advantages, Specifications, Nanometric Profiling Applications, Scanning Laser Profilometry, Optical Principle, Probes, 149

10 xii D Profiler, LP-2000 TM Control Unit, Laser-Scanned Penetrant Inspection (LSPI TM -Patent Pending), Applications, Advanced Techniques, Natural and External Excitation, Strain/Stress Measurement, Theory of Operation, Technical Data, Longer Range 3D Speckle Interferometry System, Technical Data, Hardware and Software Options, Applications for 3D-ESPI Systems, Technical Data, Nondestructive Testing (NDT), Shearography, Principle of Laser Shearography, Compact Shearography System, Technical Data, Portable Shearography System, Technical Data, Other Applications, Feltmetal Inspection System, Setup and Technique, Technical Data, Optional Applications, Optical Inspection Systems, ARAMIS, Industry-Specific Applications, Measuring Procedure, Measurement Results, Measurement Advantages, Comparison of ESPI and 3D Image Correlation, ARAMIS HR Specifications, ARGUS, TRITOP, Photogrammetric Offline System, Measurable Object Size, Digital Photogrammetry Functionality, System Advantages, Portable Measuring System Technique, Dynamic TRITOP, Other Laser Methods, Measurement of Hot Spots in Metal/Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors, 177

11 xiii 5 Leak Testing Methods Introduction, Fundamentals, Ultrasonic Leak Testing, Ultrasonic Leak Detectors, Bubble Leak Testing, Dye Penetrant Leak Testing, Pressure Change Leak Testing, Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing, Mass Spectrometer Leak Detector, MSLD Subsystems, Spectrometer Tube, Vacuum Systems, Vacuum System Configurations, Conventional (Direct) Flow, Contraflow (Reverse) Flow, Midstage Flow, Multiple Flow, Electronics, I/O Functions, Methods of Leak Detection, Vacuum Testing Method (Outside-In), Locating Leaks, Measuring Leaks, Pressure Test Method (Inside-Out), Locating Leaks, Measuring Leaks, Accumulation Testing Method, Vacuum Systems, Pressurized Systems, MSLD Configurations, Wet or Dry Pumps, Cabinet or Workstation Models, Portable Units, Component or Integratable Units, Calibration, Calibrated Leaks, Radioisotope Tracer Leak Testing, Bubble Leak Testing, Leak Detector Solution, Vacuum Box Bubble Tracer Leak Testing, Pressure Bubble Leak Testing, Indications, Pressure Change Leak Testing, 202

12 xiv Principles, Terminology, Equipment, Pressurizing Gases, Pressure Change Measurement Testing, Reference System Technique, Leakage Rate and Flow Measurement Testing, Nuclear Reactor Systems, Halogen Diode Leak Testing, Principles, Terminology, Gases and Equipment, Calibration, Sniffer Techniques, Equipment Operation and Servicing, Normal Operation, VIC MSLD Leak Detectors, MSLD Subsystems, Spectrometer Tube, Vacuum System, Operating Sequence (MS-40 and MS-40 Dry), Calibration Sequence (MS-40 and MS-40 Dry), Liquid Penetrant Tests Introduction, Processing, Test Methods, Water Washable Fluorescent Penetrant Process, Post-Emulsification Fluorescent Process, Reverse Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Process, Visible Dye Penetrant Process, Water Emulsifiable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, Water Washable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, Post-Emulsifiable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, Solvent Clean Visible Dye Penetrant Process, Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Methods, Test Equipment, Penetrant Materials, System Comparisons, Applications, Measurement of UV and Visible Light, Automatic and Semiautomatic Penetrant Testing Methods, 245

13 xv 7 Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Principles, Magnets and Magnetic Fields, Discontinuities and Defects, Induced Magnetic Fields, Circular and Longitudinal Fields, Selection of Magnetizing Method, Commercial Equipment, Wet and Dry Particle Inspection, MT Improvements, Remote Magnetic Particle Inspection, Probe Power, Lightweight UV Lamps, Dual Light (UV/Visible and Visible) Particle Indications, Applications, Residual Fields and Demagnetization, Magnetic Flux Strips, Hall Effect Gaussmeter, The Hysteresis Curve, Selection of Equipment, Advantages and Disadvantages of the Method, Magnetic Rubber Inspection, Introduction, Inspection Principles, Advantages of MRI, Formulations, Underwater MRI, Technique, Disadvantages, Magnetic Penetrameters, Automatic and Semiautomatic Inspection, Magwerks Integrated System Tracking Technology, Basic Operation, Basic Operation Automatic Mode, Applications, Discontinuities and Their Appearances, Nonrelevant Indications, Neutron Radiographic Testing Introduction, Physical Principles, Neutron Radiation Sources, 304

14 xvi 8.4 Neutron Activation Analysis, Ward Center TRIGA Reactor, Radiation Hazards and Personal Protection, Radiation Detection Imaging, Conversion Screens, Indirect Transfer Method, Direct Transfer Method, Fluorescent Screens, Electronic Imaging, Nonimaging Detectors, Neutron Radiographic Process, Interpretation of Results, Other Neutron Source Applications, Neutron Level Gauges, Californium-252 Sources, Neutron Radioscopic Systems, Introduction, Neutron Imaging System Components, Online Inspection Systems, Characteristics of Aluminum Corrosion, Thermal Neutron Inspection System Requirements, Conclusions, Radiographic Testing Method Industrial Radiography, Personnel Monitoring, Selected Definitions, Survey Instruments, Leak Testing of Sealed Sources, Survey Reports, Work Practices, Time Distance Shielding Containment, Regulatory Requirements, Exposure Devices, State and Federal Regulations, Basic Radiographic Physics, Introduction Isotope Production, Fundamental Properties of Matter, Radioactive Materials, Stability and Decay, Activity, Half-Life, Types of Radiation, Interaction of Radiation with Matter, 346

15 xvii 9.12 Biological Effects, Radiation Detection, Survey Instruments, Radiation Sources, Isotope Sources, Portable Linear Accelerators, Special Radiographic Techniques, Standard Radiographic Techniques, Introduction, Basic Principles, Screens, Film Composition, The Radiograph, Image Quality, Film Handling, Loading, and Processing, High-Intensity Illuminators, Fluoroscopy Techniques, Flat Panel Digital Imaging Systems, Flat Panel Systems vs. Fuji Dynamix CR Imaging System, Resolution, Ghost Images, Image Lag, Dark Current Noise, Portability, Temperature Sensitivity, Flexibility, Fragility, Advantages, Industrial Computed Tomography, Scan Procedure, Applications of Industrial Computed Tomography, CT System Components, Automatic Defect Recognition, Imaging Improvements, LDA Design and Operation, ADR Techniques, Neural Network Artificial Intelligence (AI), Rule Base Using Specific Algorithms, Operating Sequence, ADR Advances of a PC Platform Over Proprietary Hardware, ADR Techniques, SADR, Conclusions, The Digitome Process, 393

16 xviii Examination Concept, Digital Flat Panel Detector, Image Acquisition, Flaw Location and Measurement, Other Applications, Manufacturing Processes and Discontinuities, Other Isotope Applications, Electron Capture Detection, Moisture Gauging, Bone Density, Gamma and Beta Thickness Gauging, Gamma and Beta Backscatter Thickness Gauging, Gamma Level Gauging, Gamma Density Measurement, Point Level Switch, Features and Benefits, Oil Well Logging, Thermal/Infrared Testing Method Basic Modes of Heat Transfer, The Nature of Heat Flow, Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions, Exothermic Reactions, Endothermic Reactions, Temperature Measurement, Common Temperature Measurements, Melting Point Indicators, Color Change Thermometry, Irreversible Color Change Indicators, Thermochromic Liquid Crystal Indicators, Liquid in Glass Thermometers, Temperature Sensors with External Readouts, Thermocouple Sensors, Special Thermocouple Products, Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs), RTD Sensing Elements and Typical Temperature Ranges, Resistance Temperature Elements (RTEs), Infrared Imaging Energy, Heat and Light Concepts, Pyrometers, Error Correction, Principles of Operation, Narrow-Band Optical Pyrometers, Broad-Band Optical Pyrometers, 424

17 xix Design and Operations of Optical Pyrometers, Applications for Broad-Band Optical Pyrometers, Installation of Optical Pyrometers, Infrared Imaging Systems, Blackbody Calibration Sources, Spacial Resolution Concepts, FOV, IFOV, MIFOV, and GIFOV, Angular Resolving Power, Error Potential in Radiant Measurements, Infrared Testing Method, Preventive and Predictive Maintenance Programs, Electrical PdM Applications, Mechanical PdM Applications, High-Performance Thermal Imager for Predictive Maintenance, Predictive Maintenance Program, Specifications, Thermal, Controls, Optional Features, Other, High-Performance Radiometric IR System, Introduction, Applications, Theory of Operation, Operating Technique, Typical Specifications, Mikron Instrument Company, Inc., Mikron 7200V Thermal Imager and Visible Light Camera, General Features, Technical Data, Performance, Presentation, Measurement, Interface, High-Speed IR Line Cameras, General Information MikroLine Series 2128, High-Speed Temperature Measurement of Tires, Camera Specifications, Other Thermal Testing Methods, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer, DLATGS Pyroelectric Detectors, FTIR Evaluation of Hard Disk Fluororesin Coating, Measurement of Film Thickness on a Silicon Wafer, 448

18 xx Advanced Mercury Analyzer, Introduction, Theory of Operation, Software, Identification of Materials, Thermoelectric Alloy Sorting, Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages, Advantages, Disadvantages, Ultrasonic Testing Introduction, Definition of Acoustic Parameters of a Transducer, Noncontacting Ultrasonic Testing, NCU Transducers, Instant Picture Analysis System, Limitations, Bioterrorism, Ultrasonic Pulsers/Receivers, Multilayer Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge, Conventional Ultrasound, Flaw Detection, Frequency, Ultrasonic Wave Propagation, Acoustic Impedance, Reflection and Refraction, Diffraction, Dispersion, and Attenuation, Fresnel and Fraunhofer Fields, Generation of Ultrasonic Waves, Search Unit Construction, Test Methods, Ultrasonic Testing Equipment, Equipment Operation, Flaw Transducers, Instrument Features, Ultrasonic Specifications, Physical Description and Power Supply, Testing Procedures, Variables Affecting Results, Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD), 519

19 xxi 12 Vibration Analysis Method Introduction, Principles/Theory, Modes of Vibration, Resonance, Degrees of Freedom, Sources of Vibration, Noise Analysis, Stress Analysis, Modal Analysis, Vibration Analysis/Troubleshooting, Rotating Equipment Analysis, Order Analysis, Transfer Functions, Predictive Maintenance, Failure Analysis, Impact Testing and Frequency Response, Pass and Fail Testing, Correction Methods, Alignment and Balance, Beat Frequency, Vibration Damping, Dynamic Absorber/Increasing Mass, Looseness/Nonlinear Mechanical Systems, Isolation Treatments, Speed Change, Stiffening, Machine Diagnosis, Sensors, Strain Gauges, Accelerometers, Velocity Sensors, Displacement Sensors, Rolling Element Bearing Failures, Bearing Vibration/Noise, Blowers and Fans, Vibrotest 60 Version 4, Signal Conditioning, Acoustic Filters, Equipment Response to Environmental Factors, Temperature/Humidity, Data Presentation, Acceleration, Velocity, and Displacement, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)/Time Waveform, 556

20 xxii Cepstrum Analysis, Nyquist Frequency/Plot, Orbit, Lissajous, X-Y, and Hysteresis Plots, Online Monitoring, Trend Analysis, Portable Noise and Vibration Analysis System, Typical Applications, System Requirements, Laser Methods, Theory of Operation, Applications, Specifications, TEC s Aviation Products, Analyzer Plus Model 1700, Flexible System, User Friendly, Expandability, Quality Commitment, Engine Fan Balancing Application, Technical Specifications, ProBalancer Analyzer 2020, Software Features, Technical Specifications, Viper 4040, Automated Track and Balancing, Vibration Analysis, Acoustic Analysis, Technical Specifications, Visual and Optical Testing Fundamentals, Principles and Theory of Visual Testing, Selection of Correct Visual Technique, Equipment, Borescopes, Jet Engine Inspection, Nuclear Applications, Other Applications, Fiberscopes and Videoscopes, Applications, SnakeEye TM Diagnostic Tool, Industrial Videoscopes, Equipment and Features, Instrument Setup, 590

21 xxiii D Viewing, Applications, Working Tools, Projection Microscopes, Leica FS4000 Forensic Comparison Microscope, The Long-Distance Microscope, New Developments, Model K-2 Long-Distance Microscope, Numerical Aperture (NA), Care and Cleaning, InfiniVar CFM-2 Video Inspection Microscope, Accordion TM Machine Vision, InFocus Microscope Enhancement System, Spherical Aberrations, InFocus Corrections, Applications, InfiniMax TM Long-Distance Microscope, Remote Visual Inspection, Industries Applications, Camera Head Options, Camera Pan and Tilt Features, Hand-Held Controller, Camera Control Unit, Hand-Held Controller Details, Applications, Robotic Crawler Units, Control Unit, Cable Reels, Crawler and Camera Options, Applications, Pipe and Vessel Inspections/Metal Joining Processes, Ocean Optics Photometers, Optical Resolution, System Sensitivity, Specifications, Applications, Overview of Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 2001 Edition Purpose, Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing NDT Levels of Qualification, 640

22 xxiv 14.3 Recommended NDT Level III Education, Training, and Experience, Written Practice, Charts, Recommended Training Courses, Acoustic Emissions Testing Method, Electromagnetic Testing Method, Laser Testing Methods Holography/Shearography, Laser Testing Methods Profilometry, Leak Testing Methods, Liquid Penetrant Testing Methods, Magnetic Particle Testing Method, Neutron Radiographic Testing Method, Radiographic Testing Method, Thermal/Infrared Testing Method, Ultrasonic Testing Method, Vibration Analysis Method, Visual Testing Method, Appendix, Example Questions, Answers to Example Questions, A Dynamic Document, Special Disclaimer, 659 Appendix 1: Bibliography of Credits 661 Appendix 2: Company Contributors 667 Index 671

23 PREFACE This book has been written to provide a single volume with basic background information needed to help students and nondestructive testing (NDT) personnel qualify for Levels I, II, and III certification in the NDT methods of their choice, in accordance with the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (2001 edition). It is also recommended that students and NDT personnel become thoroughly familiar with the most current recommended practice as well. The contents of this book tend to follow the general outline of the recommended standard practice. Questions and answers for each NDT method are not included in this volume, but are available in separate volumes elsewhere. Acronyms are spelled out when first used and a complete list of commonly used NDT acronyms may be available from the American Society for Nondestructive Testing. In the case of Level III certification, the book is meant to supplement the required hands-on laboratory and field training. A detailed discussion of standard procedures and practices is beyond the scope of this book. There are six major organizations concerned with codes, standards, practices, and guidelines: 1. ISO International Organization for Standardization 2. CEN European Standardization Committee 3. ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials 4. EWGAE European Working Group on Acoustic Emission 5. AFNOR French Standardization Society 6. DGZIP German Society for Nondestructive Testing xxv

24 xxvi PREFACE The ASTM is a leading international organization concerned with codes, standards, practices, and guidelines. Because of the proliferation of organizations and standards, it is very difficult to get universal approval of proposed standards, practices, or guidelines. This is a continuing problem and one that will not be solved soon. College and university instructors should find the text especially useful in working with private industry and NDT employers who want to set up on-site NDT training and certification programs. At the same time, coverage of the text is broad enough in scope to be suitable for use as a classroom text and general source of information on NDT. The author hopes that this text will interest a new generation of young people in considering careers in nondestructive testing or nondestructive evaluation (NDE), the term currently favored by some practitioners. The ASNT s mission is to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing. The mission of an engineer is to create a safer world though the ethical application of his or her specific knowledge and discipline. Paul E. Mix, PE, EE Austin, Texas