Research and Its Impact on the Code

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1 SUPPLEMENT 5 Research and Its Impact on the Code Wayne D. Moore, P.E., FSFPE, CFPS Editor s Note: Research has played an important role in the development of many of the requirements of the Code. While some of this research dates back to the Code beginnings, research continues to provide a basis for improvements in both technology and best practice. This supplement discusses both the historical and future role that research has played in changing the Code. EARLY RESEARCH Alexander Ross developed the first electric fire detector in Brooklyn, New York, in However, another New Yorker, William B. Watkins, designed the first electric fire sensor to see commercial use. By the early 1870s, Watkins had developed remotely monitored fire alarm systems using heat detectors. In 1873, he formed the first private fire alarm company. That company survives to this day as AFA Protective Systems, now headquartered in Syosset, New York. Watkins developed the Watkins thermostat, the precursor to the self-restoring bimetallic heat detector used in fire alarm systems today, in the 21st century. No recorded information exists regarding spacing requirements. Nor does any document record whether anyone performed research to establish spacing guidelines for these first detectors. It simply appears that users of these detectors installed one in every room or space of the building. Underwriters Laboratories Inc. conducted the first heat detector tests on record to determine spacing of heat detectors. The National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU) sponsored these tests by UL in A series of tests evaluated heat detector placement. The researchers conducted the tests in rooms of different volumes with both smooth and beamed ceilings. The NFPA Technical Committee working on the development of the document that became NFPA 72E, Standard on Automatic Fire Detectors, incorporated the results of these tests. Fire detection system designers and installers still use the results of those tests today. The original published booklet containing the test results appeared as shown in Exhibit S5.1. The Los Angeles Fire Department published the results of the Operation School Burning tests in These tests provided still further emphasis on the development of de- tection technology [1]. This was the first major series of Wayne D. Moore, P.E., FSFPE, is the Director of Operations of the New England office of Hughes Associates, Inc., in Warwick, Rhode Island. He has served as an editor of the first, second, and third editions of the National Fire Alarm Code Handbook. Mr. Moore is a former member of the NFPA Standards Council, a member and former chairman of the Technical Correlating Committee on Signaling Systems for the Protection of Life and Property, holds membership on the NFPA Technical Committees on Cultural Resources, Uniform Fire Code, and Protected Premises Fire Alarm Systems, and Chairman on the Technical Committee on Premises Security. 749

2 750 Supplement 5 Research and Its Impact on the Code tute (FDI) in the late 1960s as a nonprofit corporation dedicated to improving the fire detection and alarm standards and codes through testing programs and research. The institute has sponsored research that led to the development of heat and smoke detection modeling, the effects of ceiling shape and geometry, and the effects of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems (HVAC) on the response of room detectors. In 1967 the FDI sponsored additional heat detection research at the Factory Mutual Research Center in West Glocester, Rhode Island. Gunnar Heskestad of Factory Mutual Research Corporation now FM Global led this project. The results of Gunnar s work and that of his colleague, Mike Delichatsios, resulted in the publication of Environments of Fire Detectors Phase 1: Effect of Fire Size, Ceiling Height and Material [3]. This research ultimately led to the requirements for heat detection placement in spaces with high ceilings now found in of NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code. The research also led to the development of Annex B, Engineering Guide for Automatic Fire Detector Spacing. ADDITIONAL SMOKE DETECTOR AND ALARM RESEARCH Almost concurrently with the FDI-sponsored research, in 1968 Congress passed the Fire Research and Safety Act, which provided clear recognition of a national need for increased activity to prevent and suppress fires. This Act recognized that the reduction of fire losses comes from EXHIBIT S5.1 Fire Alarm Thermostat Tests, Published in action along many fronts. It named research as one of those fronts. It called for more basic research. To quote a passage from the Act, the nation s basic fire research effort must tests employing both heat and smoke detectors. The results come primarily from Federal agencies, the universities, had a major impact on the fire protection community. How- and other non-profit organizations operating in the public ever, it took many years before the fire protection commu- interest. nity fully realized the impact of the data presented by Soon, various organizations began to sponsor research these tests. For example, these tests concluded that smoke to address the following: detectors can provide a higher level of life safety in the Study of early stage gaseous products of thermal degprotection of large open areas of a building. The results radation associated with the ignition process also indicated that, in most cases, detectable quantities Determination of thermal output of early-stage comof smoke preceded detectable heat levels. In fact, with bustion of various materials Operation School Burning No. 2 [2], detailing a second Study of convective dilution and the convection of hot series of tests and published in 1961, this work represented products to remote points the only well-accepted, definitive studies of the comparative response of heat and smoke detection devices for One of the results from the research stated that a case nearly the next 15 years. can be made for the claim that the reduction in annual fire losses would be greater per dollar spent on research on cheaper and better fire detection devices than in any other FIRE DETECTION INSTITUTE Individuals and organizations interested in furthering the research on fire detection formed the Fire Detection Insti- fire research area. In the mid-1970s the National Bureau of Standards now the National Institute of Standards and Technology 2007 National Fire Alarm Code Handbook

3 Supplement 5 Research and Its Impact on the Code 751 (NIST) contracted with Illinois Institute of Technology of the responses to the RFP fulfilled all of the requirements Research Institute and Underwriters Laboratories Inc. to for the research program. However, the FDI board of direcobtain data regarding the performance of smoke detectors tors saw an opportunity to achieve the objectives of the and their effectiveness in residential environments. The research effort by forging a collaboration between two of researchers performed these tests in houses located in the respondents: the University of Maryland and the National the Indiana Dunes National Park. These tests represented Research Council of Canada. The FDI developed a the first attempt to evaluate detection performance based proposed research project built around the combination of on the amount of escape time offered when the detector these two proposals into a single coordinated program. actuated. The researchers published the results of the tests The FDI submitted this coordinated program to the fire as Phase I and II, Detector Sensitivity and Siting Requirements alarm community with a request for financial participation. for Dwellings [4]. The test results showed that install- The funding participants included three trade associations, ing smoke detection on every level of a home will provide one public (national) research organization, six manufac- adequate escape time in roughly 90 percent of the fire turers of duct smoke detectors, and the FDI. By December scenarios. 1998, the FDI had obtained commitments for the requisite An independent study in 1976 by the Minneapolis Fire funding and executed research contracts in May of Department resulted in conclusions nearly identical to the As an overall goal, the research hoped to determine results of the Dunes Tests. Other tests conducted in Los the efficacy of air duct-type smoke detectors in fire alarm Angeles, California, and Ontario, Canada, led to significant system designs. The research investigated dilution effects, changes in the installation, maintenance, and use of smoke comparative driving forces, and smoke aging effects. In detectors and single-station and multiple-station smoke late 2004, the FDI published the results, entitled Investiga- alarms in residential occupancies [5]. The appropriate tion into the Application of Duct Smoke Detectors in Heating, NFPA Technical Committees then used much of this information Ventilating and Air Conditioning Systems: Final to add both requirements and guidance for the Report [7]. Representatives of FDI also delivered a report installation of smoke detectors and smoke alarms. on the results in 2005 at the January Conference of the NFPA s Fire Protection Research Foundation s Fire Detection and Suppression Research Conference in Orlando, INTERNATIONAL FIRE DETECTION Florida. Based on the FDI duct smoke detector research, RESEARCH PROJECT the NFPA Technical Committee has made changes to the In 1990, the National Fire Protection Association Research guidance provided in the 2007 edition of the National Fire Foundation, again in collaboration with the FDI, awarded Alarm Code. the International Fire Detection Research Project [6] to the Building and Fire Research Laboratories of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The efforts COLLABORATION BETWEEN FIRE in this seven-year project looked at three key issues using DETECTION INSTITUTE AND FIRE early versions of computational fluid dynamic (CFD) mod- DETECTION AND ALARM RESEARCH eling to determine the effects of flat beamed ceilings on COUNCIL detector and sprinkler response, the effects of sloped ceilings, and the effects of HVAC-induced air flow from slot In 2001, the FDI met with the National Electrical Manufac- turers Association (NEMA) to develop a research priority and various diffusers on smoke detector response. This research provided limited changes to the Code because the list. This list intended to detail the smoke detection research needs of the industry and code-making bodies. This list fire tests needed to verify the modeling were not funded, but did provide direction for future research needs to the stated three important areas that needed further research: NFPA 72 Initiating Devices Technical Committee. Performance metrics of smoke detectors Methods to relate smoke sensor signals to fire characteristics FDI DUCT SMOKE DETECTOR RESEARCH In 1996, as the result of proposals submitted to the NFPA Response of smoke detectors to specific fuels Technical Committee on Air Conditioning and Ventilating Because the members of the FDI serve as volunteers, Systems, industry leaders requested the FDI to develop a they had limited ability to accomplish the research alone. research proposal to address the efficacy of air duct-type smoke detectors. The FDI issued a Request for Proposals (RFP) to the research community in August of None However, the NFPA s Fire Protection Research Foundation (FPRF) sought assistance from the FDI in developing a new initiative that would incorporate the FDI goals and National Fire Alarm Code Handbook 2007

4 752 Supplement 5 Research and Its Impact on the Code initiatives with those of the newly formed Fire Detection Performance evaluation of residential fire alarms and Alarm Research Council. Members of the FDI responded today s fuel loads, today s alarm technology affirmatively to this request for assistance. In the New test method for detector response to smoldering spring of 2005, the FDI board of directors recommended fires that the FDI and the Council combine efforts in planning New nuisance alarm test protocols test protocols research. The paid staff of the FPRF offered an obvious to evaluate whether detectors are immune to welding, benefit to this arrangement. That staff could both develop cooking oil, smoking, and/or steam false alarms RFPs for research projects and coordinate the pursuit of Overall alarm system reliability use NFPA 72 s funding and management of the projects. The mission of requirements for regular testing as a tool to gather the Council parallels that of the FDI, to advance the implementation installed system performance data (using a new test of detection and alarm system technology report form) through research and communication programs closely tied U.S. nuisance and false alarm survey to the needs of NFPA Technical Committees. At the Technical Committee meetings for the 2007 The first meetings of the Council membership indi- National Fire Alarm Code the Technical Committee memcated the need for research beyond detection and resulted bers initially reduced the research needs assessment to the in the following wish list of potential research areas: following priorities: Study the effect of frequency of audible notification appliances and sound pressure level on the receipt and arousal of sleeping persons. Include the effects of subject age, hearing ability, and sleep mode. Develop guidelines or standards for the content and delivery of emergency voice communication messages for a variety of situations. Study the effectiveness of notification systems. Which systems are most effective in obtaining the desired response for different situations, occupancies, ages, and so on? How does the use of two or more technologies affect the effectiveness? Develop a guide for fire protection professionals addressing the design of intelligible voice communica- tion systems. Develop engineering tools to predict the performance of smoke and heat detectors on ceilings with beams, joists, or other obstructions. Develop and validate a smoke detector response algorithm for use with the NIST FDS fire model. Compare the code enforcement system in cities of low fire death rates with that of cities of high rates to see what is working and what isn t. Gather and use available fire alarm inspection, testing, and maintenance data to report on the reliability and effectiveness of fire detection and alarm systems. Develop a statistically valid, performance-based approach to inspection, testing, and maintenance of fire alarm system components and systems. Identify and propose use of standard quality control techniques and measures to model system performance, expected availability, and failure rates (mission, not just compo- nent) and establish performance requirements for a variety of risk scenarios. Performance of detectors with ceilings with deep beams or deep beam pockets Tenability: performance goals and occupant response defining design fires, occupant response (for varied populations), and tenability limits Better quantification of detector response NIST fire dynamics simulator (FDS) smoke detector algorithm validation Performance metrics for area smoke detection, sensitivity, and smoke entry factor Spacing guidelines for sloped ceilings with joists, beams, and bays Quantification of the performance benefit of placing smoke detection in hospital patient rooms HVAC shutdown versus HVAC dampers Library of flame spectra of combustible/flammable liquids and flammable gases Fire alarm audibility for elderly and children Strobe effectiveness Better human interface for fire fighters Direct view design criteria for visible notification appliances Advanced software for large facilities self monitoring/feedback, in-field validation, version control/ management Mass notification Cost effective low frequency technology Video image smoke and flame detection Integration of fire alarm and premises security technology/interface Use of combustion product gas sensors for fire detection Performance of detectors with ceilings with deep beams or deep beam pockets 2007 National Fire Alarm Code Handbook

5 Supplement 5 Research and Its Impact on the Code 753 Develop standards for the application, design, installation, location, performance, and maintenance of video smoke and flame detection. Defining tenability levels of irritants. Response of residential smoke alarms at low flow velocities Response time index (RTI) Smoke detector performance for level ceilings with deep beams and deep beam pockets Algorithm for fast and reliable fire detection Visual appliances in large spaces Reducing fire deaths in the aged: optimizing the smoke alarm signal 1. Operation School Burning, Los Angeles Fire Depart- ment, NFPA, Boston, MA, Operation School Burning No. 2, Los Angeles Fire Department, NFPA, Boston, MA, Heskestad, G., and Delichatsios, M., Environments of Fire Detectors Phase 1: Effect of Fire Size, Ceiling Height and Material, Measurements Vol. I (NBS-GCR ), Analysis Vol. II (NBS-GCR-77-95), National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA Harpe, S. W., et al., Detector Sensitivity and Siting Requirements for Dwellings, NBS-GCR-77-82, July Smoke Detectors in Ontario Housing Corporation Dwellings, Ontario Housing Corporation, Ontario, Canada, January International Fire Detection Research Project, Klote, Forney, Davis, Bukowski, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Technical Report 1993, Technical Report 1994, Technical Report 1996, Technical Report Also published by the National Fire Protection Research Foundation. 7. Investigation into the Application of Duct Smoke Detec- tors in Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Systems: Final Report, Fire Detection Institute, 2004 c/o FDI Treasurer, John M. Cholin, J.M. Cholin Consultants, Inc., 101 Roosevelt Drive, Oakland, NJ Of these projects, three the RTI research, the smoke detector performance for level ceilings with deep beams and deep beam pockets, and the research regarding visual appliances in large spaces resulted in major changes to the 2007 edition of NFPA 72. The NFPA Foundation s website at contains the final reports for this research. So, the impact of research on the National Fire Alarm Code and its predecessors has long offered significant and valuable information to all users of the Code, especially the designers and installers of fire alarm and detection systems. CURRENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH PROJECTS The Fire Protection Research Foundation has an additional project on smoke characterization, with Underwriters Laboratories performing most of the work. This project, currently underway, has a scheduled completion of June This information will impact the application of spot type smoke detectors and, most assuredly, will result in changes to the 2010 edition of the Code. We can look forward to additional research initiatives based on the prioritization established by the Council. Of the five subject areas that members had previously identified as priorities, four of them have already had preliminary project descriptions written. The Foundation has received a United States Fire Administration (USFA) grant to sup- port one of the four areas: notification. As a result, they have launched this project. Additional near-term research that will impact future editions of NFPA 72 include the following: At the 2006 Fire Protection Research Foundation s Detection and Alarm Research Conference, reports of on- going and completed research included the following: Complex beams and sloped ceilings Validation of smoke detection performance prediction methodology Video smoke and flame detection The Foundation intends to support the needs of NFPA 72 for data on installation guidelines and other issues covered in the Code. The completion of these projects will obviously help meet those needs. Ultimately, we need more investment in detection and alarm systems research. It remains gratifying to see that the results of on-going research have an impact on the National Fire Alarm Code. REFERENCES National Fire Alarm Code Handbook 2007

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