TVORBA KRAJINY A URBANIZMUS (Landscape design and urbanism)

Transcription

1 Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/ Projekt je spolufinancovaný zo zdrojov EÚ TVORBA KRAJINY A URBANIZMUS (Landscape design and urbanism) Stavebná fakulta Ing. Natália Junáková, PhD., Ing. arch. Dušan Burák, PhD.

2 Táto publikácia vznikla za finančnej podpory z Európskeho sociálneho fondu v rámci Operačného programu VZDELÁVANIE. Prioritná os 1 Reforma vzdelávania a odbornej prípravy Opatrenie 1.2 Vysoké školy a výskum a vývoj ako motory rozvoja vedomostnej spoločnosti. Názov projektu: Balík doplnkov pre ďalšiu reformu vzdelávania na TUKE ITMS Názov: Tvorba krajiny a urbanizmus - Landscape design and urbanism Autori: Ing. Natália Junáková, PhD., Ing. arch. Dušan Burák, PhD. Vydavateľ: Technická univerzita v Košiciach Rok: 2015 Vydanie: prvé Počet výtlačkov: 10 ks Rozsah: 91 strán Rukopis neprešiel jazykovou úpravou. Za odbornú a obsahovú stránku zodpovedajú autori.

3 CONTENT 1. LANDSCAPE AS A SUBJECT OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN AND PLANNING Basic definitions Landscape structure Landscape elements 9 PAGE Classification of landscape structures Landscape types LANDSCAPE FEATURES Purpose properties of the landscape Landscape potential Landscape carrying capacity Ecological stability Ecological stability in practise ecological networks LANDSCAPE PLANNING Definition of landscape planning The landscape planning approach The process of landscape planning Suitability of landscape Vulnerability of landscape The landscape-ecological planning - LANDEP methodology The landscape-ecological plan APPLICATION OF VEGETATION IN LANDSCAPE PLANNING Vegetation as a significant landscape forming component Vegetation in agricultural landscape Vegetation in urban landscape 47 5 URBANIZMUS, INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM STATEMENT Fundamental terms Urbanism Urbanization The residence The residential structure 56 6 TOWN AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TOWARDS THE WIDER SPACE The town The village The region 59 3

4 6.4 The agglomeration of town 59 7 DETERMINERS OF THE TOWN S (RESIDENCE S) FORMATION Natural determiners Socio-economical determiners 61 8 FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN (RESIDENCE) Creation of lower form of residences- communities and villages Formation of higher form of residences- towns and states The outline of the towns development I. phase of the slave society II. Phase of the slave society Feudalism (since the 9th century) Capitalism 69 9 THE SEARCH FOR THE PATTERN OF A CONTEMPORARY TOWN The ideal town Conceptions of the town in the 19th century Other urban theories from the beginning of the 20th centuries The period after the second world war in Slovakia - socialism INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS HELPING THE TOWN DEVELOPMENT The Attic Charter Other agreements The New Attic Charter THE FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE TOWN The dwelling zone Productive s activities The mining The industrial production Storage The greenery THE URBAN COMPOSITION An aesthetic point of view Picture of the urban space in the conscious of man Compositional principles of an urban work of art 89 4

5 Chapter 1 - LANDSCAPE AS A SUBJECT OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN AND PLANNING Chapter mission The first chapter deals with basic definitions related to landscape planning. It describes landscape structure, its elements and landscape substructures. Also for landscape characterization and its land use, main landscape types are identifies there. Chapter objectives After studying this chapter you should know: define basic terms related to landscape planning; characterize landscape elements patches, corridors and matrix, classify and describe the landscape structure and landscape types. 1.1 Basic definitions Landscape is an ambiguous concept, with meanings of both the actual reality (the area) and also its perception. It is about the relationship between people and place. It results from the way that different components of our environment, both natural (the influences of geology, soils, climate, flora and fauna) and cultural (the historical and current impact of land use, settlement, enclosure and other human interventions), interact together and are perceived by us. Landscape is the principle spatial unit of research and planning recommendations in landscape planning process. Landscape is a term found in heterogeneous disciplines like art (painting, music, literature), analytic disciplines, like geography and sociology and technical and scientific disciplines like economics, planning, town planning, architecture and even biology and natural sciences. As Zonneveld (1979) stated, landscape is part of the spaces on the earth s surface, consisting of a complex of systems, formed by the activity of rock, water, air, plants, animals and man, and that by its physiognomy forms a recognizable entity. Forman and Godron (1986) consider landscape as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystem that is repeated in similar form throughout. A landscape manifests an ecological unity thought its area. Within a landscape several attributes tend to be similar and repeated across the whole area, including geologic land forms, soil types, vegetation types, local faunas, natural disturbance regimes, land uses, and human aggregation pattern. Thus a repeated cluster of spatial elements characterizes a landscape. Stiles (1994) in his research writes that the term landscape is often used to include outdoor spaces at all scales, from a single private garden to neighbourhoods, park and public gardens, green space networks, the whole urban landscape, rural cultural landscapes through to the environment as a whole in the present, past and future. The European Landscape Convention (2000) defines landscape as an area, perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors. 5

6 Burel and Baudry (2003) argue that landscape is a level of organization of ecological systems that is higher than the ecosystem level. It is characterized essentially by its heterogeneity and its dynamics, partly governed by human activities. It exists independently of perception. Opdam et al. (2006) defined landscape as a geographical unit characterized by a specific pattern of ecosystem types, formed by interaction of geographical, ecological and human-induced forces. An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit. Humans are an integral part of ecosystems. The term oekologie - ecology - was coined in 1866 by the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel from the Greek oikos meaning household, home, or place to live, and logos meaning science or study. Thus, ecology is the study of the relationship between organisms and environment. The second definition, which is perhaps the most commonly repeated, considers ecology to be the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms (Andrewartha and Birch 1954). The third definition focuses ecology on the study of ecosystems (Odum 1971). Landscape ecology, a subdiscipline of ecology, is the study of how landscape structure affects the abundance and distribution of organisms. Landscape ecology focuses on three characteristics of the landscape - structure, function, and change. These main general attributes of every landscape are mutually connected by a complex system of feedbacks (Fig. 1.1). Structure refers to the spatial relationships among the distinctive ecosystems or elements present more specifically the distribution of energy, materials, and species in relation to the sizes, shapes, numbers, kinds, and configurations of the ecosystems. Forman and Godron (1986) defined landscape function as the interactions among the spatial elements, that is, the flows of energy, materials, and species among the component ecosystems. Landscape structure is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different units of the landscape, while function refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events. Change is the alteration in the structure and function of the ecological mosaic over time. Landscape ecology provides understanding of change of landscapes. The changes in landscape were brought up idea of planning for sustainable use, conservation and management. Any changes in landscape structure result in a modified functioning and changed characteristics of the landscape. That is why the study of landscape structure, its changes and consequences represents a crucial issue in landscape ecology. Fig. 1.1: Three main subjects of interest in landscape science in the landscape (Andel, 2010) Landscape planning is rational process, which controls human activities in landscape predominantly using the preventive prepared documentation. It means strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscapes. Landscape planning as a tool of ecological organization of the area and 6

7 sustainable development is an unavoidable part of spatial planning processes. It adopts the landscape as the principle spatial unit of research and planning recommendations. Landscape design is the art of arranging landscape elements to make good outdoor space. It is also a science because it involves understanding the environment around your home and selecting plants that perform well in that environment. In either case, a well-conceived landscape design, properly installed and well maintained, adds value to your property and enhances the quality of your life. Urbanism is the study of cities - their geographic, economic, political, social and cultural environment, and the imprint of all these forces on the built environment. It is the characteristic way of interaction of inhabitants of towns and cities (urban areas) with the built environment. Urban planning designs settlements, from the smallest towns to the largest cities. It is process concerned with the control of the use of land and design of the urban environment, including transportation networks, to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities. Urban planning manages land use change over a medium/long-term (5-20 years or more) horizon through land use plans and policies over a large geography (neighbourhood, city, region). Urban design is the art of making places for people. It includes the way places work and matters such as community safety, as well as how they look. It concerns the connections between people and places, movement and urban form, nature and the built fabric, and the processes for ensuring successful villages, towns and cities. It creates places in the present/short-term time frame through illustrative drawings/visualizations of landscapes/buildings. Urban design is the implementation of planning. Landscape and urban design and planning have to respect the principles of sustainable development. The term sustainability and sustainable development began to be used at the beginning of 1970s, mainly in connection to knowledge that uncontrolled growth of any type (population, production, consumption, pollution, etc.) is not sustainable in the environment with limited existing resources. Introduction and elaboration of a conception of sustainable development were constituted by the report Our Common Future (1987) and by the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (1992). According to the definition given by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (1987), sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The central aim of the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro was to identify the principles of an agenda for action towards sustainable development in the future. The primary output was the Agenda 21 document (the 21 in Agenda 21 refers to the 21 st Century), considered to be a basic starting point for preparation of strategies of sustainable development on all levels. Year 2002 was recommended for the member states of the United Nation as a horizon of elaboration of the national sustainable development strategies. Agenda 21 is a 300-page document divided into 40 chapters that have been grouped into 4 sections: 7

8 Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making. Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes. Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth, women, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers. Section IV: Means of Implementation that includes science, technology transfer, education, international institutions and financial mechanisms. Landscape protection means actions to conserve and maintain the significant or characteristic features of a landscape, justified by its heritage value derived from its natural configuration and/or from human activity. 1.2 Landscape structure Assessing landscape function and landscape change, landscape structure must be known. The landscape structure strongly influences ecological processes and landscape characteristics. Functions and all processes running in the landscape depend directly on and arise from landscape structure, it means from the spatial composition of landscape segments. Landscape structure expresses the spatial pattern (the horizontal and vertical organization) of group of elements and their spatial relationships. These elements may vary, depending on the approach to the landscape essence. There are two main landscape structure formulas in landscape ecology researches: ecological - based on the patch - corridor - matrix model (Fig. 1.2); geographical - where landscape elements are land units called geocomplexes (Fig. 1.3). Fig. 1.2: Landscape elements according to patch - corridor - matrix corridor (Cieszewska, 2000) 8

9 Fig.1.3: Landscape elements as geocomplexes: 1, 2,... - types of geocomplexes (Cieszewska, 2000) Landscape elements Landscape element is the basic unit of a landscape and it can be defined as a homogenous surface area that differs from its surroundings in nature or appearance or the smallest possible land unit that is a holistic unit which forms a patch or corridor. Depending on the shape of a landscape element we call a compact element a patch and an elongated element a corridor. The mosaic of the predominating patch type or background cover is defined as the matrix (Fig. 1.4). The arrangement or structural pattern of these elements that constitute a landscape is a major determinant of functional flows and movements through the landscape, and of changes in its pattern and process over time. Fig. 1.4: Landscape components (Gökyer, 2013) Patches are nonlinear surface areas differing in appearance from their surroundings. They are surrounded by matrix, and may be connected by corridors. They have a definite shape and spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements. They vary widely in size and shape (Fig. 1.5), type and boundary characteristics. This all affect the amount of interior habitat in the patch. They even vary in heterogeneity such that within a patch there may be one, none or several other patches. 9

10 Patch size can affect species habitat, resource availability, competition, and recolonization. Spatial scale is especially important when dealing with patches because an area large enough to be a patch to one species, may be a barrier or insignificant to another species. For example, a ploughed field might be a hunting ground for an owl, a barrier to a white mouse, and of no consequence to a deer. Another important aspect of patch size is that larger patches tend to have more linkages than small ones. Patch shape and orientation also play an important ecological role. An ecologically optimum patch shape usually has a large core with some curvilinear boundaries and narrow lobes. This shape may allow both interior species and edge species to flourish. Patch shape also determine the edge length. Fig. 1.5: Patch shape and size determine the amount of edge habitat In the landscape there are found four different types of patches, each with fundamentally different origin (Fig. 1.6). A disturbance patch results from disturbance of a small area in the matrix by various activities, both natural and artificial. Natural activities include natural disasters like hurricanes, landslides or tornados, etc. While artificial causes are associated with mostly human activities including agriculture, forestry, urbanization. For example, patches are produced by a small fire in grassland, a large blow-down in a forest, overgrazing by a local exploding population of rodents, or local spraying of a generalized insecticide. The disturbance patch has typically high population changes and species immigration causes its ultimate disappearance. If left alone, a disturbance patch will eventually change until it combines with the matrix. A remnant patch is caused by wide-spread disturbance surrounding a small area, the inverse of the spot disturbance mechanism. This patch is a remnant of the previous community embedded in a matrix that has been disturbed. Examples of remnant patches are woodlots in an agricultural area, a shrub-covered island produced by flooding a valley, a breeding warbler community on a south-facing slope that survived a rare freeze, or a pocket of herbivores that escaped the invasion of an aggressive non-native species. Remnant patches are generally more ecologically stable and persist longer than disturbance patches. An environmental resource patch reflects the normal heterogeneous distribution of resources in the environments and results from the environmental resources of a relatively 10

11 permanent and discrete area which differ from the surrounding area. Unlike the other patches, the environmental resource patch is not dependent on disturbance. Examples of these patches are concentrations of amphibians and reptiles in a desert oasis, patches of heaths on an exposed mountain ridge, acid-tolerant mosses in a glacier-caused bog. Since the cause of the environmental resource patch is relatively permanent, the patch is permanent, and species changes simply reflect those normal in the interaction between a small community in dynamic equilibrium with a surrounding matrix community. An introduced patch is dominated by an aggregation of individuals introduced into a matrix by people. Introduced patches are for the most part either planted or habitations. Planted patches include all types of field crops (e.g. wheat and corn) and tree farms (pine and eucalyptus plantations) as well as golf courses and sport fields. Habitation patches include houses and the associated yard, farmyards, courtyards, and the like. Introduced patches remain as long as the human disturbance regime maintains them. Thereafter, species from the matrix colonize, and like the spot disturbance patch, the patch disappears as it converges with the matrix. Fig. 1.6: Patch origins. Species dynamics within a patch and turnover of the patch itself differ substantially according to the mechanisms causing a patch. A) disturbance patch, B) remnant patch, C) environmental resource patch, D) introduced patch; ooo = matrix; = patch (Forman and Godron, 1981). Another landscape component is the corridor, the strip of land that differs from the matrix on either side. Corridors are areas that link patches together, serving as highways or conduits for organisms to transfer or move from patch to patch. Corridors are a unique mixture of environmental and biotic attributes from the surrounding matrix and patches. Many different kinds of corridors can be found in landscape. They can vary from wide to narrow, high to low connectivity and meandering to straight (Forman 1995). These variables influence the role that corridors play in landscape patterns and processes. Corridors can serve as a conduit for movement or act as a barrier or filter. Corridors can be differentiated in three different types, each of them with different ecological functions: Line corridors, such as paths, roads, railways, hedgerows, drainage ditches, irrigation channels, and all other elongated infrastructure facilities, are narrow and typically have only species characteristic of patch edges, they don t have interiors distinct from edges. They play an important role in the context of landscape fragmentation. 11

12 Strip corridors are wider bands containing a patch interior environment in which interior species may migrate or live. Twelve meters appears to be the critical width separating line corridors from strip corridors at least as indicated by herbaceous plant species. Stream corridors are the most widespread corridor types, and the concept has developed from considerations of water and mineral nutrient flows. These corridors strongly affect the erosion rate of the stream banks and adjoining upland and the absorption rate of water from precipitation and runoff. These, in turn, control siltation and flood levels in downstream ecosystems. They include the stream proper as well as the vegetation growing along the stream bank. They border water courses and vary in width according to the size of the stream. Corridors have origins and types similar to those of patches. Five commonly used categories of corridor origin are disturbance, remnant, environmental, introduced and regenerated corridors. Disturbance corridors are created by a disturbance of a surrounding area, which results in corridors that are different from their surroundings. They are produced by land management activities that disturb vegetation in a line or strip (e.g. a mowed roadside). Continued disturbance of the strip is often required to maintain vegetation in the desired successional stage. The widths of disturbance corridors vary, but they tend to be more strip-like. Configuration is typically straight line. They may be sufficiently wide to constitute a barrier for some wildlife species. Disturbance corridors are often important habitats for native species that require early successional habitat. Remnant corridors are the most obvious products of disturbance to the adjacent matrix. It is a corridor that has remained in its original state, but the surrounding area has been changed. Strips of vegetation on sites too steep, rocky, or wet to put into production are left as remnants after land is cleared for agriculture or other uses. Some remnants are line corridors left to identify property boundaries. The width and configuration of most remnant corridors vary considerably. Remnant corridors often contain the last assemblages of native flora and fauna in a watershed. Environmental corridors are the corridors that are significantly different from their surroundings, but exist in their original state and have significant natural values. They are the result of vegetation response to an environmental resource such as a stream, soil type, or geologic formation. They are typically winding (curvilinear) in configuration with widths that are highly variable. Sinuous strands of riparian vegetation paralleling stream courses are prominent examples in the landscape. Environmental corridors are frequently the most important habitats in the watershed. Introduced (planted) corridors are the corridors that have been disturbed; however, humans have influenced the redevelopment process. They are strips of vegetation usually planted for conservation purposes, such as to serve as windbreaks, filter strips, or riparian areas. Regenerated corridors are the corridors that have been disturbed but have redeveloped with plants and organisms. They result when regrowth occurs in a disturbed line or strip. Regrowth may be the product of natural succession or revegetation via planting. Regrowth in abandoned roadways, trails, and railroad are examples. Corridor width and configuration are dependent 12

13 upon the nature of the previous disturbance. Regenerated corridor vegetation is often dominated by aggressive weedy species during the early stages of succession. In highly fragmented landscapes, regenerated corridors are often important habitats for small mammals and songbirds. Corridors perform important ecological functions including habitat, conduit, filter/barrier, sink and source. Corridors provide habitats for a variety of species. A conduit provides species with the ability to move across the landscape. In contrast, a filter prevents the movement of species and certain materials across the landscape. Source relates to the corridor as a reservoir that provides both species and other materials to the surrounding areas, on the contrary, corridors also absorb species and other materials from the surrounding areas. These five functions can be observed in any type of corridor. Patches and corridors are imbedded in the matrix (the background ecological system ), which is usually the most extensive and connected landscape element type and plays therefore a dominant role in the functioning of the landscape (that is, the flow of energy, materials and species). The matrix is defined as a component of the landscape, altered from its original state by human land use, which may vary in cover from human-dominated to semi-natural and in which corridors and habitat patches are embedded. In other words, the matrix may be anything from urban development to agricultural land to grassland or forest. Matrix lands have the potential to function as habitat as well as the capacity to be barriers to movement. It has a high degree of connectivity. Connectivity is the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or matrix is. For example, a forested landscape (matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover (open patches) will have higher connectivity. The matrix may play a dominant role in the functioning of the landscape without being the most extensive landscape element. Determining what the matrix in a landscape is depends on connectivity, dominance, or function. Each landscape should be evaluated individually Classification of landscape structures Geographical approach presents landscape structure as a mosaic of geocomplexes. According to physical, biological and physiognomical character of these elements, as well as on the basis of various intentions, plans, regulations, the landscape is divided into three basic substructures: primary (natural), secondary and tertiary (socio-economic). Basic structure of the landscape is primary (natural/original) landscape structure, characterized by relief, geological setting, soil, water, climate, potential natural vegetation and primary/natural (nonmaterial) stress phenomena, as e.g. geodynamic, geophysical and extreme climatic events. It is composed of the set of landscape elements, which form the primary and permanent basis of the remaining landscape structures. It existed before man and it is now variably transformed. The principles of functioning of this structure are not changeable; the characters of the elements are rationally scarcely changeable or not changeable. This structure was the least influenced by man in comparison with the secondary and tertiary structures directly created by man. The elements of this structure are predominantly natural resources. Therefore, they represent the object and aim of use for man, and primary offer of landscape. They are also the basis of recreation and creation of new elements in the landscape. 13

14 The secondary (cultural) landscape structure is shaped by long-term human activities superimposed on the primary landscape structure formed by natural processes. It can be distinguished from time point of view to historical (the 50 s to 60 s of the 20 th century and earlier period) and present (current) landscape structure (land use in last 5 years). It can be identified with land use or land cover of the present landscape. Another classification of secondary landscape structure is possible to express by mapping of real vegetation (biotopes), e.g. forest communities, shrubby communities, herbaceous communities, synanthropic vegetation, urban vegetation and sparsely vegetated areas or natural bare surface. The characters of the secondary landscape structure elements are changeable by supplying certain energy. Change of this structure is the principal interest and the most distinct consequence of human activities in the landscape. Both primary and secondary landscape structures have got a direct reflection in the face of the landscape. A comparison of the secondary landscape structure with the primary one is very useful to determine the degree of naturalness or anthropogenic conversion of the landscape. Land use and/or land cover is often used to describe the secondary landscape structure. The difference in meaning of these two basic terms is that while the map of land cover represents objects of Earth s surface via their physiognomic attributes, the map of land use represents the same objects via functional attributes. Land use is characterized by the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it. Definition of land use in this way establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of people in their environment. Land use and land cover are interconnected. The following examples are a further illustration of the above definitions: grassland is a cover term, while rangeland or tennis court refer to the use of a grass cover; and recreation area is a land use term that may be applicable to different land cover types: for instance sandy surfaces like a beach; a built-up area like a pleasure park; woodlands; etc. Land use changes are reflected not only in changes of land cover, but also are the cause of changes in landscape structure and the processes in landscape, so they initiate many environmental problems. As the tertiary (anthropogenous/socio-economic) landscape structure we understand spiritual, immaterial (socio-economic) characteristics of the landscape which contribute to the specific landscape character but have got no direct physiognomic expression in the landscape. Tertiary landscape structure is created by following phenomena and factors; nature conservation, natural resources protection, cultural heritage, protected zones of primary (material) stress factors, as e.g. protected zones of agricultural farm and secondary (nonmaterial) stress factors, as e.g. example air pollution. This landscape structure is separated as a superstructure for two landscape structures. It can be changeable by legal and administrative measures (without supplying physical energy). This structure also characterizes the land use, but as the additional value of an already existing method. For example: meadow (as the element of secondary landscape structure, as well as the area, in which primary landscape structure is occurring) with rare plant species is a protected area, that is separated by an imaginarily line (as a component of tertiary landscape structure), and so its use is limited. While the elements of secondary landscape structure are not overlapped, in primary and also tertiary landscape structure appear various combinations of the features and phenomena on the same place. 14

15 Understanding of one structure depends on the understanding of other ones. Which are forms and intensity of land use - could answer just the primary landscape structure. Socio-economic phenomena in landscape (SEP) are the basic tools of legislation ensuring the desirable way of landscape use by man. We know the following types: SEP linked to production and objects - safety, hygienic, and protective zones of the mining, industrial, transport, and other objects; SEP linked to urbanization - urbanization functional zones (residential, industrial, recreation, and other); SEP linked to conservation of nature, cultural monuments, and natural resources - protective and hygienic zones of medicinal and mineral water sources, protected soils and farming cultures, protective forests, protected natural territories, protected cultural monuments; SEP characterizing deterioration of the environment - areas and zones with the polluted environment; SEP ensuing from the administrative division - administrative borders, borders of industries, borders of economic units. 1.3 Landscape types Landscape type is characterized by common and specific, fundamental, natural and cultural features. For landscape characterization and its land use, well classification according to its characteristics is important and also identifies its basic types. Based on the interaction between the natural environment and human activities landscapes can be divided into natural and cultural types. A natural landscape is when an area of land and the elements that are on it are not directly changed, altered, or moved by humans. These types of elements can be non-living or living, and may include rocks, water, plants, or trees. Generally, wildlife is not considered part of the landscape because animals have the ability to come and go from the area on their own. Although humans cannot change a landscape and have it remain natural, it can be changed by nature. Wind may blow trees over, fire could destroy vegetation, or floodwaters might remove rocks and hills. The contours of a shoreline, caused by the flow of the ocean, are a good example of a natural landscape. The growth of technology has increased our ability to change a natural landscape. Most landscapes have been profoundly modified by man, who has built towns, cut down forests, changed the vegetation, constructed roads and motorways, and brought about changes in the climate. In terms of the perspective adopted by landscape ecology, these modifications affect the spatial arrangement of patches, modify the fragmentation of large forest patches, and increase the number of transitional zones. These systems are called cultural landscapes; that is, landscapes that have been subjected to a man-made disturbance regime for a long time and in which the character and spatial arrangements of the patches are the result of complex retroactions between man and nature. Cultural landscapes reflect the interactions between man and the natural environment. According to the intensity of an anthropic impact on landscape it is possible to differentiate the cultural landscape into cultivated landscape, degraded landscape and devastated landscape. 15

16 In cultivated landscape human activities are in accordance with natural conditions. Natural resources are used rationally, man does not significantly interfere biological balance in the country. In the case of degraded landscape, a gradual decline in physical and visual values of the natural landscape occurs. Natural resources are used irrationally, but there are still the potential conditions for its recovery, when degraded human activities will stop. In devastated landscape a substantial decline in its quality takes place. It has completely disrupted biological balance, regeneration of the country to its original state is already impossible. Treatment of this type is possible using complex technical and biological measures. Cultural landscape can be also dividing by prevailing land-use to forest landscape, agricultural landscape, recreation landscape, urbanized landscape and industrial landscape. By relief dissection we know lowland, hill land and high land, upland and giant-mountain landscape. Questions: 1. Define terms: landscape, ecosystem, differences between ecology and landscape ecology, landscape structure, differences between landscape design and landscape planning, differences between urban design and urban planning, sustainable development, Agenda List the basic units of landscape (landscape elements) and describe them briefly. 3. Describe major types of patches according to their origin. 4. Describe types of corridors according to their origin and ecological functions. 5. Briefly describe the differences between individual types of landscape substructure (give an example). 6. Describe types of landscape based on the interaction between the natural environment and human activities. List the types of cultural landscape by prevailing land-use. References: 1. Andel, J. et al.: Landscape Modelling: Geographical Space, Transformation and Future Scenarios. Urban and Landscape Perspectives, Vol. 7. Springer, ISBN Cieszewska, A.: Comparative landscape structure studies for land use planning: Przedborski Landscape Park case study, (in:) ed. Richling A., Lechnio J., Malinowska E., Landscape ecology theory and applications for practical purposes, The Problems of Landscape Ecology vol. VI, Pultusk School of Humanities, s , Dramstad, W., Olson, J. D., Forman, R. T. T.: Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning, Washington, Island Press, Forman, R. T. T.: Some general principles of landscape and regional ecology. Landscape Ecology vol. 10, no. 3, pp (1995) 5. Forman, R. T. T, Godron, M.: Landscape Ecology. Wiley and Sons, New York, USA, 620p., Forman, R. T. T, Godron, M.: Patches and Structural Components for a Landscape Ecology. BioScience, Vol. 31, No. 10, pp ,

17 7. Gökyer, E.: Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics, Advances in Landscape Architecture. Murat Ozyavuz (Ed.), ISBN: , InTech, DOI: / Available from: 8. Hrnčiarová, T.: Landscape structures and their classification. Život. Prostr., Vol. 44, No. 4, p , Karadağ, A. A.: Use of Watersheds Boundariesin the Landscape Planning, Advances in Landscape Architecture. Murat Ozyavuz (Ed.), ISBN: , InTech, DOI: / Available from: Lipský, Z.: Methods of monitoring and assessment of changes in land use and landscape structure. Ekologie krajiny, Journal of Landscape Ecology, 0: 0: , Makhzoumi, J., Pungetti, G.: Ecological Landscape Design and Planning. London, Miklós, L., Izakovičová, Z.: The Invisible/Intangible Infrastructure in the Landscape. Životné prostredie, Vol. 47, No. 2, p , Santra, S. C.: Ecology: Basic and Applied. New Delhi, UNESCO: World Heritage Cultural Landscapes. A Handbook for Conservation and Management. Mitchell N., Rössler, M., Tricaud, P.M. (eds.),

18 Chapter 2 - LANDSCAPE FEATURES Chapter mission This chapter is aimed at the purposive landscape features. It discusses about the landscape potential, landscape carrying capacity, and ecological stability. Also the concept of the ecological networks with the accent on Territorial System of Ecological Stability is described in this chapter. Chapter objectives After studying this chapter you should know: define terms landscape potential, landscape carrying capacity, and ecological stability, characterize types of ecological stability, calculate landscape ecological stability, describe ecological networks. 2.1 Purpose properties of the landscape Purposive landscape features provide information about the landscape assumptions and ways of land use, land possible response to external stimuli (landscape vulnerability to changes due to various human activities). Some area reacts more sensitive to environmental changes; thereby the original landscape features acquire different character. Purposive landscape features are used to express the extent of natural processes running in the landscape, landscape change, etc. To the important purposive landscape features belong for example landscape potential, landscape carrying capacity, and ecological stability Landscape potential The landscape potential is defined as capability of landscape to satisfy community needs without detriment, depletion, disturbance or total damage to landscape production capacity. Landscape potential is an important landscape indicator. The approach of (landscape) potentials constitutes an important foundation for land use and landscape planning. Knowledge about potentials, which are available but still largely barely used can be applied to improve land use and to develop resources. It also may help to sustainable development in the area. The term landscape potential was introduced and developed by German geographers (Neef 1966, Hasse 1978) to characterize possible use of the environment by human society. Neff (1966) defined a (regional) economic potential of a landscape as the sum of all energy which is latently available in a certain area, which is released and converted by economic activities in the landscape. Hasse (1978) offered a way out of this hardly manageable complexity by suggesting that, instead of a summary energy standard for a theoretically conceivable overall potential, specific factors (properties, indicators) should be addressed in a particular case and so-called partial natural landscape potentials defined with a clear focus on more specific socio-economic or societal goals and 18

19 basic functions. He carried out the differentiation of specific capabilities of the natural area into the socalled partial natural area potential: biotic yield potential, water availability potential, waste removal potential, biotic regulation potential, geo-energetic potential, raw material potential, building and recreational potential. The United Nations (2003) emphasize that the objective of a better understanding of the relationship between economic activities and the environment requires that both the use of land by different economic activities and the potentials of land from an ecological view is to be taken into account, and: The potentials can be assessed from several points of view, one of them being the capacity of the landscape to sustain natural life under the pressure of human activities. The theories of the Slovak landscape-ecological school (Izakovicová et al., 1997) also come from this concept. In this theory, the landscape potential represents availability of different landscape uses, but also the degree of use, which results from the knowledge of landscape stability. When the landscape potential is respected, the reproductive ability of its renewable resources is preserved. It is necessary to distinguish natural resources from the potential. Natural resources are considered as a part of inanimate and living nature, which can be used in the process of production and reproduction. These natural resources can be irreversibly depleted (measured by length of the existence of human civilization) while the potential allows only such a use of these given natural utility conditions at which their quality is not excessively impaired and a possibility is left to the landscape to continually restore its potential because respecting the landscape potential guarantees its sustainable development. Determination of area potential represents exploration of landscape abilities to meet the needs of society without subsequent impairment or limitation of landscape production capacity. It is always a process of multiple criteria evaluation whose subjects are relevant characteristics of geosystems. The process of evaluation has to respect certain general principles: to provide goal and purpose of evaluation, to determine an evaluation criteria, i.e. select landscape parameters to which the evaluation relates, to set up the scope of evaluation, to define a method for agglomeration of partial surveys in multiple parameter evaluation, to select a method for the presentation of results. To establish the landscape potential means to find and define harmony between natural structure (natural background) and functional structure (land use), which change in space and time. 19

20 2.1.2 Landscape carrying capacity Landscape potentials cannot be used boundless. They have limits, which exceeding means undesirable changes, degradation of landscape functions, devastation of ecosystems. It can be said that they have their acceptable limits, carrying capacity. Landscape carrying capacity is a special landscape feature expressing the degree of acceptable (suitable) land use by human activities, while natural features, processes and relationships between landscape elements (abiotic, biotic and socio-economic) and environment quality are undamaged and/or undestroyed. Or it is described as the degree to which a particular landscape character type or area is able to accommodate change without significant effects on its character, or overall change of landscape character type. Capacity is likely to vary according to the type and nature of change being proposed. Two basic approaches to landscape carrying capacity are distinguished: biological approach the volume of population is defined by critical threshold (human and animal) from the viewpoint of nutrition (acceptable amount of livestock on the surface unit of pasture in pasture management, etc.); anthropocentric approach (from the viewpoint of man s interests) landscape carrying capacity can be defined also in anthropocentric approach, the criterion of which according to the authors Marsh and Grossa (2002) are human values for the quality of life, environment, and future generations (i.e. conception of sustainability). From this viewpoint the mentioned authors define it as the size of the population that can live in a long-term sustained balance with the environment at a reasonable quality of life with land use systems that do not degrade over time. It includes not only sustainable food production that conserves soil and water resources, but maintenance of other life forms and environmental features that are not of direct and immediate economic value. The basic problem of landscape carrying capacity is to determine the critical threshold pointing at the fact that after its violation can appear irreversible (irreparable) changes in landscape structure. These changes can have the character of destruction of landscape structure and so they lead to the basic deterioration of environmental quality of the area. Critical threshold is determined by limits. Threshold of landscape carrying capacity, behind which the acceptable amount of changes in landscape structure and its components changes to unacceptable one (or in the upper border of extent or amount of acceptable changes), is determined by limits: 1. Abiotic limits limits derived from the features of natural landscape conditions (properties of geological underlying rock, relief, surface and underground waters, soil and climatic characteristics). 2. Geodynamical limits limits derived from the procedures going on in the landscape as avalanches, falling down and sliding down of slopes, soil erosion, fall of walls, floods etc. They are processes potentially damaged or destroyed anthropic objects (e.g. buildings), infrastructure (e.g. roads, electric cables), different categories of landscape utilization (e.g. gardens, forest stands, arable land), but they can also make impossible the further utilization or exclude utilization in planning. There are assessed real and potential natural processes (i.e. tendency of the area to extreme natural processes). 20

21 3. Ecological limits limits derived from natural significance of landscape components or areas, e.g. wetlands, marshes, peat bogs, flowering meadows, natural forests, rocky grasslands, relict soils, etc. Significance is given by different ecological functions. 4. Ecosociological limits limits given by legislative nature protection (e.g. protected species, categories of species endangerment, protected areas of nature and landscape), by protection of natural sources (e.g. protected areas of water and forest sources and soils of the highest value), by further legislative norms (e.g. elements of territorial system of ecological stability core areas, biocorridors, interactive elements, which can be overlapped with protected areas). 5. Cultural-historical limits limits given by legislative protection of monuments (e.g. national cultural monuments, monuments reserves, monuments zones), as well as by special values of significant historical and landscape structures, etc. 6. Hygienic limits limits given by hygienic norms limiting the acceptable content of certain harmful material in single landscape components, e.g. sulphur oxide in air, noise, phenols in water (according to different indices surface waters are divided into 5 classes of purity), radon in mountains etc. 7. Safety limits limits given by legislative norms determining the protection zone of different anthropic objects producing (real and potential) emissions, as operating companies, disposal sites, animal farms, various traffic buildings (roads, railways) etc. Limits are given by legislative regulations. Landscape carrying capacity is an auxiliary criterion in environmental planning following the acceptable environment quality Ecological stability Ecosystem stability is an important corollary of sustainability. A sustainable ecosystem is one which maintains features like levels of productivity, processes of nutrient cycling, levels of soil fertility, and its characteristic level of biodiversity. A stable ecosystem, a sustainable ecosystem, is something which keeps working - working in the sense of the processes we have been looking at in the course so far. Over time, the structure and function of a healthy ecosystem should remain relatively stable, even in the face of disturbance. If a stress or disturbance does alter the ecosystem is should be able to bounce back quickly. There are more definitions of ecological stability. Holling (1973) defined ecological stability as the ability of a system to return to an equilibrium state after temporary disturbance. According to United Nations (1997) stability of ecosystem refers to the capability of a natural system to apply selfregulating mechanisms so as to return to a steady state after an outside disturbance. The ecological stability can be characterized in one of the following ways (stability properties): constancy (Fig. 2.1): staying essentially unchanged; the lack of change in some parameter of the ecosystem such as number of species, size of a population, or feature of the physical environment; cyclical stability (Fig. 2.2): oscillating around some central point or zone; the ability of an ecosystem to change through a series of conditions that bring it back to its initial condition; resistance (inertia, Fig. 2.3): staying essentially unchanged despite the presence of disturbances; the ability of a system to resist external perturbation; 21

22 resilience (elasticity, Fig. 2.4): returning to the reference state (or dynamic) after a temporary disturbance; the ability to continue functioning after perturbation. Fig. 2.1: Constancy Fig. 2.2: Cyclical stability Fig. 2.3: Resistance (inertia) Fig. 2.4: Resilience (elasticity) To evaluate the ecological landscape stability, as the most frequent indicator in assessing of the environmental landscape quality, several methodological approaches were developed. They are mostly based on defining the coefficient of ecological stability (CES), which categorizes the landscape to specific degree of ecological stability in a predetermine scale. Basic definition and mathematical expression of CES were introduced by Michal (1982). The equation for calculation of this coefficient has several revisions and modifications. All attempts to calculate a complicated phenomenon of ecological stability of the cultural landscape are based on the proportion of different land use categories in the investigated area. Generally, coefficient of ecological stability of the landscape is formulated as the proportion of ecologically relatively stable (positive) areas like forests, waters, grasslands and ecologically relatively unstable areas like arable lands, built-up and disturbed areas, industrial sites etc. The simplest coefficient of ecological stability according to Michal is counted as: CES 1 = S/U where S is the total area of all ecologically relatively stable land use categories with permanent cultures. Ecologically significant elements are interpreted as the landscape-forming ones with a positive (stabilizing) effect on the surrounding landscape like woody vegetation, grassland, orchards, vineyards, gardens, urban vegetation, recreational and leisure areas, water bodies) and U is the total area of all ecologically relatively unstable land use categories like arable land annually ploughed, built- 22

23 up areas without green urban areas and leisure areas. If the value of CES 1 is less than 0.10, then the landscapes are considered as very unstable area with maximum disruption of natural structures, if this coefficient is between landscape is unstable (area above average use with a distinct disruption of natural structures - urbanized areas), relatively stable landscape, exploited intensively by agricultural activities, stable landscape (as a whole balanced landscape, where technical objects correspond to natural structures) and more than very stable landscape (natural landscape with ecological stable structures). Because it is very simple, the coefficient is routinely used to characterize the area under investigation for planning purposes. All catchments, biogeographical regions and administrative units are characterized by this way. The authors realize shortages of the method: it is too schematic and can be far from the reality which is much more complicated. The simplicity of the coefficient is reasoned by the structure of statistical data on land use which are at disposal in a unified form for the whole state territory and for all cadastral units. Using this statistical data, it is not possible to differentiate the quality within categories because for example in case of forests only one official statistical category of land use exists. The same is true for waters, meadows, orchards and other basic land use categories. A similar basic approach, that is the proportion of the area of different land use/land cover categories in the landscape under investigation, has been used by more authors to quantify ecological stability of the landscape. The authors seek to reduce the shortages mentioned above using partial coefficients, for example the coefficient of ecological importance for different types of land cover (Miklos, 1986), or divide ecologically stable and ecologically relatively unstable areas into more categories (Löw, 1987). The formula according to Miklos (1986) is: CES 2 = p i. k i P where p i is the area of individual elements (land cover), k i is coefficient of the eco-stabilizing capacity of individual elements (Tab. 2.1) and P is the total area of elements in hectare. Tab. 2.1: Assessment coefficient of the ecological situation of different categories of lands (Andriuca, 2010) Land category Coefficient of the eco-stabilizing capacity of individual elements Natural forests 1.00 Lakes and natural swamp 0.79 Pastures 0.68 Permanent grassland 0.62 Gardens 0.50 Orchards and bushes 0.43 Forest strips 0.38 Vineyards 0.29 Arable land 0.14 Others areas 0.10 Built up areas and traffic areas

24 If the value of CES 2 is less than 0.33, then the landscapes are considered ecologically unstable, if it is between uncertain stability, average stability and more than 0.67 ecologically stable landscapes. Calculation of the coefficient of ecological stability by Löw (1984) is: CES 3 = (1.5 A + B C) 0.2 D E where A is percentage of surfaces with 5 th degree of environmental quality (forests, water elements); B is percentage of surfaces with 4 th degree of environmental quality (riparian vegetation, game refuges); C is percentage of surfaces with 3 th degree of environmental quality (meadows and grazing elements); D is percentage of surfaces with 2 th degree of environmental quality (arable land) and E is percentage of surfaces with 1 th degree of environmental quality (built-up areas). Attributes of the coefficient are interpreted thus: CES 3 < 0.1 degraded landscape, CES 3 < 1 disrupted landscape, CES 3 = 1 balanced landscape, CES 3 from 1 to 10 landscape with dominating natural elements, CES 3 > 10 natural or almost natural landscape. Several methods are used to measure human interventions into the original landscape structure, which affect its ecological stability. The originality coefficient of the cultural landscape is one of them and it has a simple formulation: C OCL = FL + PG AL where FL is forest land, PG means permanent grassland and AL is arable land. Another one is the coefficient of anthropogenic transformation of the landscape (Bičik and Kupkova, 2005). These types of coefficients had been also used to document temporal historical changes in ecological stability of the landscape and in the grade of its anthropogenic transformation. But it is a weak point of such coefficients that they are not able to quantify different ecological quality of arable lands, grasslands, orchards and other land use categories in different historical periods. It is simply clear that ecological quality of intensively used arable lands in modern large-scale agriculture with high level of used chemicals and heavy machinery on large plots is much worse in comparison with traditional small-scale agriculture using farmyard manure and horse power. But mechanical applications of the above mentioned coefficients often demonstrate a paradox of an increase in ecological stability of the landscape because of an increase in the area of forests and a decrease in the area of arable lands especially during last years. Original statistical data on land use are not able to respect landscape microstructure which is extremely important for landscape processes, its biodiversity and ecological stability. That is why the coefficients are not suitable to use them in historical comparison however many authors do it. 24

25 2.1.4 Ecological stability in practise ecological networks The unprecedented increase in the human use of natural resources over the last century has adversely affected ecosystems, leading to their fragmentation and loss of biological diversity. Protected areas that remain as isolated units, surrounded by a radically altered habitat, almost always face serious viability problems over the long term. The importance of strengthening ecological coherence and resilience as necessary conditions for both biodiversity conservation and sustainable development has been echoed in conservation and development fora for some time. The concept of the ecological network therefore becomes important. The ecological network has developed over the past 40 years with the broad aim of maintaining the integrity of environmental processes. In Central and Eastern Europe, several national ecologicalnetwork programmes were developed in the 1980s inspired by the polarized-landscape theory of the Russian geographer Boris Rodoman. Based on this theory, the eco-stabilizing approach proposed that the landscape should be zoned in such a way that intensively used areas are balanced by natural zones that function as a coherent, self-regulating whole. During the 1990s, local regional and national programmes that aimed to integrate protected areas into more extensive linked networks were developed in many countries in Western Europe, North America, Latin America, Australia and Asia. The term ecological network gained favour in Europe in the early 1990s and has been used in the most important international mechanisms in recent years, including IUCN s World Conservation Congresses, the World Summit on Sustainable Development s Plan of Implementation and the CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) Conferences of the Parties, including the programme of work on protected areas. One of the actions identified by the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development was to promote the development of national and regional ecological networks and corridors. The CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) programme of work on protected areas emphasizes the importance of establishing protected areas in a mosaic of land and water habitats to facilitate maintenance of ecological processes. In regional and national settings, however, different terms are used to describe the model (Tab. 2.2). These include territorial system of ecological stability, reserve network, bioregional planning, ecoregion-based conservation, connectivity conservation areas and various language-specific variants, but also corridor. Ecological networks provide an operational model for conserving biological diversity while reconciling the conflicting demand of natural resource use. Ecological networks connect ecosystems and populations of species that are threatened by fragmented habitats, facilitating genetic exchange between different populations and thus increasing the chances of survival of threatened species. The ecological network concept also provides a tool for ecological design and physical planning that facilitates interaction with other types of land use. Ecological networks share two generic goals, namely (1) maintaining the functioning of ecosystems as a means of facilitating the conservation of species and habitats and (2) promoting the sustainable use of natural resources in order to reduce the impacts of human activities on biodiversity and/or to increase the biodiversity value of managed landscapes. The components of ecological networks are: 25

26 core areas, where the conservation of biodiversity takes primary importance, even if the area is not legally protected, corridors, which serve to maintain vital ecological or environmental connections by maintaining physical (though not necessarily linear) linkages between the core areas, buffer zones, which protect the network from potentially damaging external influences and which are essentially transitional areas characterized by compatible land uses, sustainable-use areas, where opportunities are exploited within the landscape mosaic for the sustainable use of natural resources together with maintenance of most ecosystem services. A diagrammatic representation of this spatial arrangement is shown in Fig Tab. 2.2: Approaches for ecological networks and greenways in Europe (Jongman et al., 2004) 26

27 Fig. 2.5: Diagrammatic representation of the spatial configuration of an ecological network The Territorial System of Ecological Stability of the Landscape (TSES) is the nature conservation tool constituting an ecological network in the landscape in the Slovak Republic. It is an integrated structure interconnected to other ecosystems, their components and elements, which ensure a diversity of life conditions and forms in the landscape. The foundation of this system is represented by biocentres, biocorridors, and interactive elements of national, regional or local (district) importance. A biocentre (Fig. 2.6) is a habitat or a system of habitats which makes possible by its state and size the permanent existence of a natural or modified, but semi-natural ecosystem. In other words a biocentre is a habitat or a complex of habitats which support the permanent existence of wildlife species populations, species assemblages, guilds and communities as well as of a natural or seminatural ecosystem. Biocentres are divided into existing and planned. The existing ones are formed by natural and seminatural ecosystems of the high degree of ecological stability (e.g. natural oak woodlands, herb-rich grasslands). TSES plans also recognize proposed biocentres, the areas/patches harbouring ecosystems with a low degree of ecological stability, heavily changed by humans (e. g. fields), which will have to be transformed to provide conditions favourable for wildlife species. Biocorridor (biotic dispersal & migration corridors, Fig. 2.7) is an area which does not make possible to the critical part of organisms permanent long-term existence, but it makes possible their migration and/or dispersal between biocentres: thus, it makes a real interconnected network from isolated biocentres. 27

28 Fig. 2.6: Supra-regional biocentre Zobor in Slovakia Fig. 2.7: Supra-regional biocorridor, river Orava in Slovakia The third components of TSES are interactive elements (Fig. 2.8), small areas/patches/plots (often spatially isolated) that provide favourable conditions to some plants and animals significantly affecting the functioning of ecosystems in the cultural landscape. The interactive elements are smaller in size than biocentres and biocorridors. Typical interaction elements are for example shrub communities on forest edges, game refuges in fields and groups of hardwoods in coniferous monocultures. 28

29 Fig. 2.8: The interactive element The TSES is defined at three interconnected levels: supra-regional (= national), regional (= subnational) and local. The General Plan of the Supra-regional Territorial System of Ecological Stability in Slovakia was approved by the Government of the SR on 27 th April 1992 as a document determined for the strategy for the protection of the diversity of life conditions and forms in the landscape (biological and landscape diversity) at a scale of 1: Supra-regional TSES reflects a spatial arrangement of the ecologically most important preserved natural territories, especially forests, wetlands, rocks, vegetation along water courses, etc. and it specifies the relationship and significance of ecologically stable territories of Slovakia connecting them to the European ecological network (EECONET). The supra-regional level includes biocentres with an area of ecological significance of more than hectares. The supra-regional TSES is also part of the Pan-European Ecological Network (PEEN). Regional Territorial System of Ecological Stability projects are prepared at a scale of 1: It contains landscape units and areas of ecological significance (minimum area of ha). A network of these units must represent a diversity of biochore types in the context of a certain biogeographical region. Local Territorial Systems of Ecological Stability projects are prepared at a scale of 1: or 1:10,000 at a municipal level as a component of the land-use planning documentation. It contains small landscape units of ecological significance (area about 5-10 ha). A network of these represents biogeocoenosis type groups in the context of a certain biochore. 29

30 Questions: 1. Define the term ecological stability and characterize types of ecological stability. 2. Describe the coefficient of ecological stability and its determining. 3. Define ecological networks and aim for creating of ecological networks. 4. List and define the elements of Territorial System of Ecological Stability (TSES). 5. List and define the levels of TSES documentation depending on a size of the area. References: 1. Andriuca, V.: Assessment of the ecological situation and the state of the drinking water quality in rural areas of the Dniester river basin. Present environment and sustainable development, No. 4, Bastian, O., Haase, D., Grunewald, K.: Ecosystem properties, potentials and services The EPPS conceptual framework and an urban application example. Ecological Indicators 21, pp. 7 16, Bennett, G., Mulongoy, K. J.: Review of Experience with Ecological. Networks. Corridors and Buffer Zones. CBD Technical Series No. 23. Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Bicik, I., Kupkova, L.: Dlouhodobé změny ve využívání krajiny v Česku. Historická geografie (Historical geography), 33, pp , Cebecauerová, M.: Ecological network dynamics and environmental consideration in planning for renewable energy. Geografický časopis, Vol. 59, No. 3, pp , Drdos, J., Hrnciarova, T.: Carrying capacity in Slovakia. International workshop on environmental impact assessment, Drzewiecki, W.: Sustainable land-use planning support by GIS-based evaluation of landscape functions and potentials. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. Vol. XXXVII. Part B7. Beijing, p , Ecological Networks in Europe: Current Status of Implementation ECNC-European Centre for Nature Conservation, Grimm, V., Schmidt, E., Wissel, C.: On the application of stability concepts in ecology. Ecol. Modelling, 63, pp , Haase, G.: Zur Ableitung und Kennzeichnung von Naturraumpotentialen. Peterm. Geogr. Mitt., 122 (2), pp , Holling, C.S.: Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4, pp. 1 23, Hrnciarova, T.: Evaluation of landscape diversity by selected purpose properties. Život. Prostr., Vol. 45, No. 4, p , Hrnciarova, T.: Territorial System of Ecological Stability- from philosophy to realization. Brno,

31 14. Izakovicova, Z.: Landscape-Ecological plan as the basic tool for sustainable land use. GeoScape Vol. 7, No. 1, p. 8-17, Izakovičová, Z., Miklós, L., Drdoš, J.: Krajinnoekologické podmienky trvalo udržateľného rozvoja. Veda, Bratislava, 186 pp., Jongman, R.H.G., Külvik, M., Kristiansen, I: European ecological networks and greenways. Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 68, pp , Kotrla, M., Prcik, M.: Ecological stability as a determinant of Nitra region development in Slovakia. Scientific Papers Series Management. Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development, Vol. 14, Issue 1, Krönert, R., Steinhardt, U., Volk, M. (Eds.): Landscape balance and landscape assessment, Springer, Lipsky, Z.: Methods of monitoring and assessment of changes in land use and landscape structure. Czech Society for Landscape Ecology CZ- IALE, Brno, Ekologie krajiny (Journal of Landscape Ecology), Vol. 0 (0): , Löw, J. et al.: Principles for determination and design of territorial systems of ecological stability. Brno: Agroprojekt, Marsh, W. M., Grossa, J. M. Jr.: Environmental Geography. Science, Land Use, and Earth Systems. New York (Wiley), Michal, I.: Principles of territory landscape evaluation. In: Architecture and Urbanism, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp , Neef, E.: Zur Frage des gebietswirtschaftlichen Potentials. Forschungen und Fortschritte, 40 (3), pp , OECD: OECD Glossary of Statistical Term, Pavlickova, K., Miklosovicova, A., Vyskupova, M.: Effects of Sustainable Energy Facilities on Landscape: A Case Study of Slovakia. In Designing Low Carbon Societies in Landscapes. Ecological Research Monographs, pp , Pechanec, V., Janikova, V., Brus, J., Kilianova, H.: Typological data in the process of landscape potential identification. Moravian Geographical Reports. Vol. 17., No. 4, pp , Rehackova, T., Paudtisova, E.: Methodology of landscape ecological stability coefficient establishment. In: Acta Environmentalistica Universitatis Comenianae, Vol. 15, pp , Ruzickova, J.: Ecological network of Slovakia at different levels. Acta Environmentalica Universitatis Comenianae, Vols. 4 5, Vuilleumier, S., Prelaz-Droux, R.: Map of ecological networks for landscape planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 58 (2002)

32 Chapter 3 - LANDSCAPE PLANNING Chapter mission This chapter is devoted to the application of theoretical landscape ecological principles into practice through the landscape planning. The landscape planning approach, the process of landscape planning and LANDEP methodology is described here. Chapter objectives After studying this chapter you should know: define landscape planning, characterize the process of landscape planning, describe the LANDEP methodology. 3.1 Definition of landscape planning Because of the rapid development in the second half of 20 th century, many countries faced big environmental problems related to correct land use and protection of the environment. An active interaction between land use and landscape ecological problems request to implement landscape ecological principles into spatial planning process. Landscape planning can be defined as application of theoretical landscape ecological principles into practice in solving problems of the humans for ecologically optimal and sustainable development. Landscape planning, often referred to as environmental planning or ecological planning, is a way of directing or managing changes in the landscape so that human actions are in tune with nature and environment. Landscape planning is the key planning instrument for nature conservation and landscape management and it is an inseparable part of landscape ecology. It presents the application of theoretical principles of landscape ecology for the solution of practical problems of ecologically optimum and sustainable development of mankind on the Earth. It evolved from the belief that the fundamental instrument of environmental protection is unified approach to spatial planning that coordinates developmental interests and the demand for environmental protection. The premise of landscape planning is that natural environment is a resource and at the same times a constraint on human activities. Landscape planning is also a way to effectively include the environmental requirements of different sectors into planning process. The basic distinction between spatial planning and landscape planning is that the former is essentially economic and developmental in orientation, while the latter is more concerned with environmental and landscape qualities and thus protective in orientation. However, some authors (Hersperger, 1994) distinguish the terms landscape ecological planning and landscape planning. Landscape planning focuses on the organization of uses and relationships of land uses to achieve explicit goals (e.g. habitat improvement, sustainability). While, the landscape ecological planning approach, as a specialization within landscape planning, is the process of 32

33 understanding, evaluating, and providing options for the use of landscape to ensure a better fit with human habitation. An understanding of ecological planning is dependent on the study of human activities in, and the nature of, natural ecosystems. It also depends on the fact that people are a part of nature, and as a result nature is of value to humans. Landscape ecological planning investigates the problem of realizing the values of the natural resources, while ensuring the long-term survival of such resources. It has been characterized as a decision-making process where planner attempts to achieve a sustainable balance between human needs and environmental protection. It must be noted that landscape planning does not represent a substitute for spatial planning. With developed approaches and methods, it may complement a set of spatial planning approaches and methods and contribute to larger efficiency of bottom-up comprehensive planning. 3.2 The landscape planning approach Planning the landscape is an old idea. Around 1800 John Claudius Loudon ( ) worked as a planner. Patrick Abercrombie gave a lecture on Country planning and landscape design in 1934 and wrote that the English countryside has been wrought upon by man in the past in such a way that he has created out of nature s raw materials a work of human art, a composition or a picture as we should say of music or painting. When Brian Hackett used Landscape Planning as the title of a book in 1971, he used it in its modern sense. McHarg s book Design with Nature, was by far the most important landscape planning book of the twentieth century. Had he used Landscape planning as the title he would doubtless have advanced the profession and diminished his sales. Arnold Weddle, founding editor of the Elsevier journal Landscape Planning, made a most useful remark in the introduction to his book on Techniques of landscape architecture. He wrote of an activity distinguished from related professions by looking beyond their closely drawn technical limits and narrowly drawn territorial boundaries. This is a distinguishing feature of landscape planning. The definition of landscape planning, given by Dame S. Crow (1989) clearly indicated the essence of landscape planning. She defined it as creative conservation. The aim of landscape planning is thus to prevent or at least limit the degradation of the environment to a minimum while increasing, as far as possible, creativity in order to meet the developmental needs. Forman (1995) notes that landscape planning had developed independently of landscape ecology but argued that his landscape-ecological planning (concept) usually focuses on humans, and how the land can be effectively designed for their use. He notes that environmental characteristics, visual quality or cultural characteristics are examined in order to accommodate human activity with minimal impact to the landscape. Landscape ecology has added a further dimension to landscape planning, specifically in the areas of rural and agricultural land; natural resource areas for forestry, wildlife and biodiversity; and corridors and greenways. The principles of landscape planning are now incorporated in various types of legislation and policy documents. In America, the National Environmental Policy Act was influenced by the work of Ian McHarg on Environmental impact assessment. In Asia, major development projects are taking place and illustrating the need for good landscape planning. In Germany, the Federal Nature Conservation Act requires the preparation of landscape plans. For the Europe Union as a whole, the European Landscape Convention has wide-ranging implications for the design and planning of relationships 33

34 between development and the landscape. It requires developing a special landscape planning approach aimed at landscape management and protection and its integration into regional and town planning as well as cultural, environmental, economic and other policies. All these requirements provide a good prerequisite to surmount the sectorial and to strengthen the territorial approach in realising the principle of sustainability, especially on national and regional levels of state planning. In Slovakia During last 40 years several original landscape-ecological methods have been elaborated. This forms good bases for landscape planning nowadays. In spite of the long-term experience with elaboration of landscape plans, legal framework was anchored to the Slovak legislation only by amendment of the Building Code (Act No. 237/2000). According to 1 of the Building Code, landscape planning solves spatial set up and functional use of the landscape, and proposes coordination of activities which influence state of the environment, ecological stability, culture, historical values and territorial development in accordance with sustainable development principles. This code gives, that the landscape and ecological plan is an integral part of the regional and local landscape plan in survey and test phase, and aims to optimal spatial and functional use of the land in line with landscapeecological, culture-historical and socio-economic conditions. In the period preparatory works on a proposal of the Landscape Planning Act were realised. The act proposal was built upon positive experience acquired in the field of landscape planning at home and also abroad and its philosophical basis was the LANDEP methodology (Landscape Ecological Planning), oriented to ecological optimisation of landscape use. To that methodological basis other methodologies also entered, aimed at evaluation of landscape image, landscape character, visual impact of human activities on the landscape, delineation of landscape types, procedures of integrated landscape management, procedures of valuation of environmental quality, environmental security etc. In 2007, based on a new negotiation between the Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Construction and Regional Planning, preparation of the Act on Landscape Planning was stopped. 3.3 The process of landscape planning Planning the landscape is both a logical process and a methodology that defines a series of components that direct our attention toward four interrelated activities: 1. establishment of goals and objectives; 2. collection and analysis of information; 3. evaluation of alternative courses of action; 4. recommendation of a course of action. The German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation distinguishes these steps in landscape planning: 1. inventory; 2. evaluation; 3. planning objectives and measures; 4. implementation. As the first step in the planning process, baseline information on the current state of nature and the landscape, on the functional capacity of the natural environment, on the scenic qualities of the landscape, on development potential as well as existing and foreseeable problems and conflicts with 34

35 other existing or foreseeable land uses are collated (inventory). This type of information is often already held by the municipalities, the nature conservation authorities or by conservation organizations and individuals; some data will need to be collected through new surveys. During the inventory phase the planner must first gain an overview of the natural conditions and the special problems of the planning area. Subsequently the current state of nature and the landscape as well as foreseeable changes are described and depicted in text form and maps. Focal topics are soils, water, air, climate, flora/vegetation and fauna as well as the amenity value of the landscape, i.e. its value as an area for experiencing nature and for recreation. In this manner a comprehensive overview is gained of the state of nature and the landscape in the municipality. Based on this information the evaluation of nature and the landscape is the second step in the planning process. The interaction between inventory, evaluation, and planning is very important in order to arrive at planning statements which are comprehensible for everyone. This process produces site-specific statements as to areas which are to be protected or which sites require development and maintenance measures. Comparing the information collated for the individual focal topics it becomes clear where there are difficulties or conflicts. Comparison with information produced through other planning processes highlights areas where conflicting land-use claims must be reconciled, and contributes to finding environmentally sound development variants. In the subsequent planning phase a guiding vision and a set of planned objectives for the municipality is developed. The specific requirements and measures needed for the protection, management and development of nature and landscapes in the respective municipality are deduced from the results of the evaluation, the guiding vision and the planned objectives. It is of particular importance that the guiding vision, the planned objectives and the requirements and measures are developed together with all stakeholders (municipal council and administration, land owners and users, citizens, landscape planners, relevant government offices, associations). In this process great importance should be attached to making the contents easily understandable and comprehensible. In order to improve the implementation of the planned measures, these are not only described in some detail (e.g. which tree and shrub species will be used to establish new hedges, what is the envisaged structure of the hedge) but a timescale for implementation and the respective addressees of the measure are listed. Information on how, where and through whom supporting funds can be drawn down is also important. The implementation phase, following the completion of the actual planning procedure, is very important. Implementation can be carried out in many different ways. One possibility is that the requirements and measures are integrated into the relevant physical development plans of the municipality or into other sectoral plans, as appropriate, and thus realized. Another possibility is that they are implemented by land owners and land users. Every citizen can become active: possible activities include, for example, plantings on private land, establishing green roofs and planting facades, refraining from the use of chemical fertilizers and plant protection products, looking after old fruit trees especially on the margins of towns and villages, or becoming actively involved with planting and management campaigns organized and run by the municipalities or conservation organizations. The basic phases of the landscape environmental planning model, based on Steiner (1991), can be summarized as follows: 35

36 1. Identification of planning problems and opportunities The first step in the environmental planning method describes the exploration of issues that concern the interrelationships between the development process and the environment. It basically requires consideration as to how development opportunities may conflict or adversely affect environmental resources and ecological functioning. 2. Establishing planning goals Once specific issues (problems) have been identified, goals are established to address these problems. These goals provide the basis for the planning process and help crystallize an ideal future situation. 3. Regional landscape analysis This phase is unique to the environmental planning approach. Regional analysis describes the process of systematically characterizing the regional environment that constitutes the setting of the planning area. Within this regional setting, information is collected and a regional scale inventory of the natural and human factors relevant to the planning problem is produced. At this scale the collected information base is necessarily generalized and is used primarily to enable the planner to gain an "overview picture" of the region, its form, function, and situational characteristics, that allows important questions to be asked related to human/environmental relationships and permits simple "what if" scenarios to be explored that may suggest the need for more detailed studies. The purpose of conducting a regional analysis and inventory is to aid basic insight into how the regional system functions. 4. Local landscape analysis Moving to a local-scale analysis concentrates on the collection of information regarding the appropriate physical, biological, and social factors that define the planning area. At this scale of analysis the goal is to obtain a detailed understanding of the natural processes and their relation to human plans and activities. Local analysis implies a much more in-depth inventory of critical natural factors and a classification of landscape characteristics that provides a systems view of human/environmental interaction. A key feature of local-level analysis is the addition of a sociocultural inventory that helps shape a cleared expression of human ecology within the planning area. Human ecology in this sense defines the manner by which people interact with each other and their environment, together with the relationships this interaction describes. 5. Detailed studies Detailed studies connect the inventory and analysis of information to the problems and goals identified earlier in the process. Anderson (1980) refers to this phase as landscape analysis modelling. Common models applied to assist the environmental planner in these tasks include suitability models, separation models, vulnerability models, and attractiveness models. 6. Planning-area concepts This step centres on developing concepts for the planning area. Planning concepts take the form of options derived from a conceptual model or scenario of how a goal may be achieved or a problem solved. These concepts typically express suitabilities or constraints produced through the combination of the information gathered during the inventory and analysis phases. 36

37 7. Landscape plan The plan becomes a strategy to guide local development and offers flexible guide lines for decisionmaking process. Topics given particular attention in this plan include considerations such as how best to conserve, rehabilitate, or develop the planning area. 8. Citizen participation Public participation occurs through a variety of educational and information dissemination programs. Beginning very early in the planning process, when issues are first being identified, public involvement introduces itself at each stage of the environmental planning process. This involvement is essential simply because it will help ensure that the goals emanating from the community are realized as objectives in the plan. 9. Detailed designs The goals and objectives expressed in the landscape (environmental) plan will eventually influence the future spatial arrangement of land uses within the planning area. This design phase of the process offers decision-makers an opportunity to visualize the consequences of the policies and programs described in the plan, and to examine the geographic form and arrangement the plan will assume. 10. Plan design and implementation Making the plan work requires various strategies and procedures to realize the adopted goals and policies. Several mechanisms common to planning include instruments such as voluntary covenants, land purchases, performance standards, zoning, and performance standards. 11. Administration Once the plan is adopted and implemented it must be administered to ensure that the goals and objectives established are achieved over the long term. Administration focuses on the role of planning commissions, citizen boards, review agencies, and other "overseeing" bodies that exist within the fabric of local government. Regardless of the specific focus of individual approach in landscape planning, they all share the common main steps (Ndubisi, 2002): 1. understanding the nature of interactions between human action and natural processes; 2. understanding and describing the landscape to identify areas that are homogeneous; 3. analyzing the identified homogeneous areas in light of the purposes of intervention; 4. developing alternative options for mediating the identified conflicts in human environment interrelations; 5. detailed evaluation in terms of their technical feasibility, workability, probable effects on different groups, sustainable use of landscape, impacts on landscape; 6. developing measures for implementing the preferred option; 7. monitoring the effects Suitability of landscape The majority of contemporary landscape planning approaches is still based on suitability concept, although the development in other disciplines and overlapping with them has brought variations, focusing on different aspects on nature-human relationships. In Design with Nature, McHarg (1999) explained suitability analysis in following manner: In essence the method consists of identifying the 37

38 area of concern as consisting of certain processes, in land, water, and air - which represent values. These can be ranked - the most valuable land and the last, the most valuable water resources and the last, the most and least productive agricultural land, the richest wildlife habitats and those with no value, the areas of great or little scenic beauty, historic buildings and their absence, and so on. Lewis Hopkins has explained this method in the following manner: The output of land suitability analysis is a set of maps, one of each land use, showing which level of suitability characterises each parcel of Iand. This output requirement leads directly to two necessary components of any method: (1) a procedure for identifying parcels of land that are homogeneous and (2) a procedure for rating these parcels with respect to suitability for each land use (Hopkins, 1977). The most important step of the suitability analysis is describing the nature of interactions between human action and natural processes in a form, which is applicable for further processing and useful in the spatial planning process. This step is called suitability modelling and can be to a different extent formalized and quantified. Suitability modelling involves: identification (and mapping) of spatial characteristics (factors) which are relevant for concerned land uses, description of their interrelation (value) for individual land uses, mapping the values and overlay of value maps (definition of aggregation function). A simplified illustration of how the suitability analysis procedure works is provided in Fig The main step of this process is description of the spatial characteristic interrelation (value) for individual land uses, or the definition of suitability criteria. The most attractive feature of this method is that it can be used for both conservation and development of resources. Landscape planning is worked out on the national, regional (district) and local (i.e. municipal) level. The local landscape plans are based on the specifications contained in the regional landscape programme and the landscape structure plans. At all levels, landscape planning makes an important long-term contribution to the conservation of natural resources. It not only addresses the narrower areas of particularly valuable protected sites, but also devises strategies for full-coverage, sustainable conservation and long-term development of nature and landscapes Vulnerability of landscape Vulnerability in landscape planning is defined as vulnerability to impact meaning the potential negative impact of planned activities on natural and man-made environmental values (Steinitz, 1967). Vulnerability level therefore depends on the characteristics of a stressor (human intervention) and environment (Fig. 3.2). The interaction of environment and proposed activity is analysed to determine the causal relation and to identify the potential negative impacts. The main tool is interaction (or impact) matrix (Leopold, 1971). It involves testing subcomponents of an action (intervention) against a set of environmental components. The columns are filed in with the activities / actions; the rows with environmental components. Each intersection represents a potential impact - environmental problem. 38

39 Fig. 3.1: Illustration of the suitability procedure (Steiner, 2009) 39

40 Fig. 3.2: An example of interaction matrix (Golobic and Zaucer, 2010) 3.4 The landscape-ecological planning - LANDEP methodology Landscape-ecological planning LANDEP which has been elaborated in the Slovak Republic (Ruzicka, Miklos, 1982) is a broadly drafted synthesis of knowledge of the potential possibilities of ecologically optimum landscape utilisation from the viewpoint of purposeful forming the conditions for the conservation and development of healthy populations of organisms and man and for the development of human society. The LANDEP methodology brought integrated approach in solving environmental problems, focusing on finding the optimal spatial organization and by that reaching a harmony between natural characteristics of the land and planned socioeconomic activities. The application of LANDEP has at present wide possibilities particularly for the needs of land-use planning, agriculture and other areas of societal life. LANDEP can get the passive landscape protection to active position of prevention when protection is realised in planning and landscape formation as a part of the environment. It is oriented to ecological optimisation of landscape use. From methodological viewpoint, LANDEP contains five methodological steps (Fig. 3.3), i.e. Landscape-Ecological (L-E) analysis, L-E synthesis, L-E interpretation, L-E evaluation and L-E proposals and measures. 40

41 Fig. 3.3: Landscape ecology and land-use optimization method redrawn from Ruzicka and Miklos, Landscape-ecological analysis consists of the collection of input information about landscape characteristics: abiotic (geology, relief, soil, water and climate), biotic (potential and real vegetation, land-cover, and fauna), and socio-economic (settlement and industry agglomeration distribution, nature protection locality, and cultural-historical values). 2. Landscape-ecological synthesis includes the creation of synthetic homogeneous spatial unit with similar environmental characteristics. They are homogenous spatial areas with quasi equal parameters calling the types of landscape-ecological complexes (LEC types). 41

42 3. Landscape-ecological interpretation represents classification of parameters from the environmental standpoint. It determines spatial (functional) landscape features e.g. erodibility, vulnerability. 4. Landscape-ecological evaluation presents the determination of limits and degree of suitability of landscape for location of selected social activities (selection of unlimited activities for each units ). It evaluates areas from environmental standpoint and determines the types and kinds of ecological problems resulting from conflict endangering (human activities/actions - stress phenomena) and endangered (environmental components - phenomena for landscape protection) factors in landscape. 5. Landscape-ecological proposals and measures. Proposition is shown as a spatial model of land use, according to the suitability or disadvantage of given landscape unit for defined human activities. Its goal is to eliminate accumulation of environmental problems. Alternative proposals of ecologically optimum spatial arrangement can be used in: landscape-ecological measures for landscape renovation and revitalization, nature protection, environmental conditions improvement for human life etc. The result of LANDEP is the proposal of an ecologically optimum landscape utilisation aimed at harmonisation of social activities in the landscape with its ecological features in time and space. The biggest acknowledge for LANDEP was adoption in Chapter 10 of AGENDA 21 (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) as one of the recommended method for integrated protection of natural resources. 3.5 The landscape-ecological plan The planning process ultimately becomes embodied in a plan. This plan expresses the goals and objectives of a society that will guide the allocation of functions within the land-use system to produce a desired future state. The landscape-ecological plan is a complex process of mutual harmonization of spatial demands of economic and other human activities with landscape-ecological conditions of the area following from the landscape structure. It proposes the best possible ways of territorial exploitation/land use; it secures the respectful use of nature, natural resources, conservation of biodiversity and support to ecological stability. It is an essential tool of sustainable land use because that it regulates socioeconomic development with natural, human, cultural and historical potential of landscape. It is an obligatory part of spatial planning documentation and its principal result is determination of the basic principles of optimal spatial organization and the project of optimal territorial management. Questions: 1. Describe the approach to landscape planning. 2. List and characterize the basic phases of the landscape environmental planning. 3. Describe the suitability and vulnerability of landscape in landscape planning process. 4. Define LANDEP methodology and its basic steps. 5. What is the aim of the landscape-ecological plan? 42

43 References: 1. Ahern, J.: Theories, methods and strategies for sustainable landscape planning, Tress, B., Tress, G., Fry, G., Opdam, P. (eds.). From landscape research to landscape planning: Aspects of integration, education and application. Springer, Bharatdwaj, K.: Physical Geography: A Landscape appreciations. India, Bundesamt für Naturschutz: Landscape planning. The basis of sustainable landscape development. German Federal Government: Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Golobic, M., Zaucer, L.B.: Landscape planning and vulnerability assessment in the Mediterranean. In: Priority Actions Programme, Hersperger, A.M.: Landscape ecology and its potential application to planning. Journal of Planning Literature. Vol. 9, No. 1, pp , Choy, D.L.: Towards a regional landscape framework: is practice ahead of theory? Urban Research Program. Research Paper 9, Izakovicova, Z.: Landscape-Ecological plan as the basic tool for sustainable land use. GeoScape Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 8-17, Karvonen, L.: Guidelines for landscape ecological planning. Forestry Publications of Metsähallitus 36, Kozova, M., Finka, M., Misikova, P.: Landscape planning as a tool for protection, planning, management and design of the landscape. Život. Prostr., Vol. 41, No. 3, p , Krnacova, Z., Hrnciarova, T.: Landscape-ecological planning a tool of functional optimization of the territory (case study of town Bratislava). Ekológia (Bratislava), Vol. 25, No. 1, p , Lein, J.K.: Integrated environmental planning, USA, Marsh, W. M.: Landscape planning. Environmental application. Wiley, Ndubisi, F.: Ecological planning: a historical and comparative synthesis. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Özyavuz, M.: Inventory and analysis of the landscape. Advances in Landscape Architecture, Pauditsova, E., Rehackova, T.: Landscape-ecological proposals for the increase of ecological stability in the contact zone between settlements and agricultural landscape. The Problems of Landscape Ecology, Vol. XXVIII., pp , Ruzicka, M., Miklos, L.: Methodology of ecological landscape evaluation for optimal development territory. Proc. Int. Neth. Soc. Landscape Ecol. Velhoven Pudok. Wageningen, pp , Ruzicka, M., Miklos, L.: Basic premises and methods in landscape ecological planning and optimization. In: Changing Landscapes: An Ecological perspective. Springer Verlag, New York, pp , Slavkovic, D.: Landscape planning the LANDEP methodology. Proceedings of the III Congress of Ecologists of Macedonia. pp , Steiner, F.R.: The living landscape. Second Edition: An ecological approach to landscape planning. Island press, Turner, M. G., Gardner, R. H., O'Neill, R. V.: Landscape ecology in theory and practice: Pattern and process. New York, Springer-Verlag. 404 pp.,

44 Chapter 4 - APPLICATION OF VEGETATION IN LANDSCAPE PLANNING Chapter mission This chapter focuses on the vegetation as a significant landscape forming component and its use in landscape planning. It speaks about the vegetation in urban and agricultural landscape and its major functions. Chapter objectives After studying this chapter you should know: classify main vegetation categories, describe vegetation in agricultural landscape, describe functions of vegetation in urban landscape. 4.1 Vegetation as a significant landscape forming component Vegetation as a component of landscape environment belongs among dominant phenomena at assessment and evaluation in the processes of landscape-ecological planning. The importance and usage of vegetation in landscape creation is focused on relatively stable forest vegetation and nonforest tree and shrub vegetation that is flexibly completed by variable vegetation of agricultural crops and orchards. It is the foundation of the landscape and reinforces the intended use of our outdoor space. Due to its following features, abilities and signs vegetation is a significant landscape forming component. It can be characterized by its properties, abilities and expressive characters that can be summarized in the following categories: it is a spaceforming element, it has the ability of growing, changing its area and volume, it changes during the vegetation period and forms different shapes, colours, texture, structure and habitat. it forms and protects the fauna and flora diversity, it supports the ecological stability of the landscape, it produces biomass, it forms representative landscape picture and areas for recreation. According to The United States National Vegetation Classification (2008) we define two vegetation categories natural and cultural vegetation. Natural (including semi-natural) vegetation is defined as vegetation where ecological processes primarily determine species and site characteristics; that is, vegetation comprised of a largely spontaneously growing set of plant species that are shaped by both site and biotic processes. Natural vegetation forms recognizable physiognomic and floristic groupings that can be related to ecological site features. Human activities influence these interactions to varying degrees (e.g., logging, livestock grazing, fire, introduced pathogens), but do not eliminate or dominate the spontaneous processes. 44

45 Wherever doubt exists as to the naturalness of a vegetation type (e.g. old fields, various forest plantations), it is classified as part of the natural / semi-natural vegetation. Semi-natural vegetation typically encompasses vegetation types where the species composition and/or vegetation growth forms have been altered through anthropogenic disturbances such that no clear natural analogue is known, but they are a largely spontaneous set of plants shaped by ecological processes. Natural (or near-natural) and semi-natural vegetation are part of a continuum of change within natural vegetation that reflects varying degrees of anthropogenic and other disturbances. Natural/semi-natural vegetation includes forest and woodland, shrubland and grassland, semi-desert vegetation, high montane vegetation, and aquatic vegetation. The distinctive physiognomy, floristics, and dependence on human activity for its persistence set cultural vegetation apart from natural and semi-natural vegetation. Cultural vegetation is defined as vegetation with a distinctive structure, composition, and development determined by regular human activity. Cultural vegetation has typically been planted or treated, and has relatively distinctive physiognomic, floristic, or site features when compared to natural vegetation. Distinctive physiognomic and structural attributes typically include one or more of the following: Dominant herbaceous vegetation that is regularly-spaced and/or growing in rows, often in areas with substantial cover of bare soil for significant periods of the year, usually determined by tillage or chemical treatment. Dominant vegetation with highly-manipulated growth forms or structure rarely found as a result of natural plant development, usually determined by mechanical pruning, mowing, clipping, etc. Dominant vegetation comprised of species not native to the area that have been intentionally introduced to the site by humans and that would not persist without active management by humans. Cultural vegetation includes agricultural and developed vegetation. 4.2 Vegetation in agricultural landscape A significant areal and spatial element in agricultural landscape is non-forest woody vegetation (NFWV). It has an areal, linear or group physiognomic shape. In the landscape, it forms a system of interconnected networks that are important in terms of the territorial system of ecological stability. NFWV elements are integral components of the green infrastructure in the landscape as tools for planning, designing, preserving biodiversity and landscape stability. In agricultural landscape, it is possible to define categories of NFWV according to the functional type, areal and spatial composition, utilitarian value, species composition, origin and physiognomic features. Concerning these characteristics, it represents following formations. a) Natural vegetation elements of NFWV this category includes areal and linear elements of NFWV, which are developed on specific localities with an almost extreme character and their eventual removal and conversion of the land for production management would be expensive, or they are located on extreme sites in terms of soil-hydrology and relief (e.g. dry, waterlogged, 45

46 shallow, skeletal soils, extremely sloping topography, extreme microclimate, functional and utilitarian delimitation). We classify here following NFWV categories: Growths of shrubs and tree-like shrubs on dry, shallow and sloping areas, but also on pastures and permanent grasslands cut once a year. They have areal, linear or group physiognomic shape. Vegetation elements of hydrophilic NFWV they are bound to watercourses and standing bodies of water, but also to marshy and waterlogged areas. They form riparian vegetation, or accompanying vegetation with a linkage to water elements. b) Semi-natural NFWV elements most often on terrain terraces, field baulks, along boundaries and also as elements of abandoned succession growths or extensive orchards and vineyards or along stone constructions on boundary lines. c) Cultivated NFWV elements they are established by a purposeful human activity for a utilitarian or a landscape-architectural purpose. They represent 70 % of all NFWV elements in the agricultural landscape. They can be divided into three basic subcategories: Accompanying vegetation of vehicular communications; Protective forest belts (windbreak or shelterbelts, infiltration belts, protective lines of farms, etc.); Cultivated vegetation of production fruit species of NFWV - it represents intensive, extensive or alternative (organic) orchards, plantations of small (shrub) fruit. Currently dominate mainly environmentally acceptable forms of management and chemical, protective and nutrient intervention (grassed orchards and vineyards, chemical treatment 2-3 times a year, integrated biological and mechanical protection). These NFWV categories fulfil besides production and landscaping also biotic functions. Non-forest woody vegetation provides a wide range of functions, services and important values. To these belong e.g.: promotion of the development and maintenance of gene pool and biodiversity; elimination and counterbalancing of extreme climate conditions; land and landscape protection against destructive natural and anthropogenic impacts; protection, improving the quality and counterbalancing of the water cycle in the landscape; production of biomass, food sources and enhancement of economic benefits from the cultivated landscape; in the sphere of social functions, NFWV is the subject of research, study and education as well as the basic compositional element of the landscape image, its aesthetic, cultural and historic values. Penetration of NFWV elements into settlement structures and their contact zones, mainly of rural settlements, creates a unique rural historic landscape architecture image in terms of their public open spaces, institutional green spaces of cemeteries, and also values of permanent plantations like orchards, vineyards, and also historic gardens and parks or other forms. 46

47 4.3 Vegetation in urban landscape Vegetation in urban landscape serves three major functions: environmental, engineering and architectural. a) When we speak of an environmental role of vegetation, our attention focuses on their influence on microclimates within the landscape. Microclimate refers to temperature, wind and light in a relatively small area. Plants can modify microclimates in our landscapes and thus contribute to human comfort. Environmental functions of vegetation are following: Wind control (Fig. 4.1) - Strategic placement of trees and shrubs helps to break, guide, and deflect wind currents. Climate modifications - Vegetation helps reduce temperatures by shading the ground and by the cooling effect of water emitted from its foliage. Energy conservation (Fig. 4.2) - Deciduous trees (trees which loose their foliage) shade building surfaces in the summer and, as a result, reduce the demand on air conditioning systems. During winter months, sunlight passes through the trees to provide natural solar heat for the building s interior. Wildlife conservation - Diverse vegetation types provide wildlife habitat for nesting, shelter, and food. Fig. 4.1: Wind control with vegetation: windbreaks are designed to intercept and deflect prevailing winds and reduce wind speed in the protected area (Schutzki, 2005). Fig. 4.2: Energy conservation with vegetation: canopy trees intercept the direct rays of the sun, providing a shade pattern (Schutzki, 2005). b) Engineering functions of vegetation are considered as: Erosion control - Ground cover shrubs can hold soil on a slope or prevent excessive erosion during seasonal rains. Noise reduction - Dense foliage effectively reduce noise levels by absorbing sound waves. 47

48 Glare and reflection reduction - Plants can effectively soften glare and reflection from manmade materials. Air pollution control - Vegetation is a natural filter that removes dust and pollutants from the air. c) Plants can also serve architectural functions by highlighting or masking architectural features of a house or building: Softening (Fig. 4.3 and 4.4) is breaking up the hard lines of the built form, particularly where there is a change of plane, e.g. between walls and footpaths, or large blank walls. In the residential scenario such planting is generally at shrub level, although planting for other time frames also fulfils this function. Fig. 4.3: No planting at wall base results in hard edges (Residential Design Guide SPG 3) Fig. 4.4: Planting softens hard edges (Residential Design Guide SPG 3) Screening is not hiding buildings but creating visual barriers with plant material. This may enable dwellings to exist in a closer proximity than might otherwise be the case. It is generally more acceptable to look at an area of planting than the equivalent area of brickwork or fencing as a visual barrier. Mass breaking (Fig. 4.5) is a specific function of softening to reduce mass of building, usually by planting trees. The essential element to fulfil this function is viewpoint, as such a specific function will only be fulfilled when the planting is in line with the building. This is therefore a fairly limited use of landscaping. Character planting (Fig. 4.6): The two sides of this are retention and creation of character. The former requires survey and the latter analysis of the existing natural features, both on the site and in the vicinity and their inclusion in the proposed development. This may include trees, hedges, grassland, or features such as ponds or ditches. The character created in a development provides a sense of identity and this can be relatively easily achieved by planting particular species through a development or creating features such as avenues, boundary hedges, ditch drainage or feature trees etc. One of the problems of retention of the changes created in local water tables resulting in trees dying from over or under watering. 48

49 Fig. 4.5: This was high-pollarded to enable construction, but the future effect is shown (Residential Design Guide SPG 3) Fig. 4.6: Retained trees and hedges (Residential Design Guide SPG 3) Habitat retention (Fig. 4.7):: Whilst almost any planting or green space will provide a habitat for some form of wildlife, the variety of animals, birds and insects can be greatly increased by the careful selection of plant types for a given location, orientation and micro-climate, although native species generally support more wildlife. In addition wildlife does not exist in isolation and therefore linkages, or wildlife corridors, are required between both public and private open/green spaces. Whilst these are obvious along linear spaces, such as footpaths, cycleways and hedges, they also exist through open gardens, which are normally front ones in the current suburban housing developments. 49

50 Fig. 4.7: Habitat corridor through new housing development - former country lane (Residential Design Guide SPG 3) Integration of landscapes (Fig. 4.8 and 4.9): This occurs at the interface of town and country and generally requires a blurring of the boundary between the two. The creation of a soft boundary by use of hedging and lack of straight lines helps to do this as does the inclusion of landscaped areas in peripheral development of the same character as the adjacent countryside and linking to it. Fig. 4.8: Soft edge to rural road (Residential Design Guide SPG 3) Fig. 4.9: Hard edge to rural road (Residential Design Guide SPG 3) The relatively static built environment must recognise the dynamism of the natural environment and allow it the space and opportunity to thrive to its natural maturity. As the natural environment is sensitive to change and, particularly in the case of trees, has a long life span, it is essential to retain as much of the natural environment as possible and enhance its opportunities to survive. 50

51 Questions: 1. Characterize vegetation as a significant landscape forming component and its features. 2. Classify main vegetation categories. 3. Describe vegetation in agricultural landscape and its functions. 4. Describe environmental and engineering functions of vegetation in urban landscape. 5. Describe architectural functions of vegetation in urban landscape. References: 1. Cervelli, J. A.: Landscape design with plants: Creating outdoor rooms. University of Kentucky Cooperative extension Service Pub. HO-62, Available from: 2. Dimoudi, A., Nikolopoulou, M.: Vegetation in the urban environment: microclimatic analysis and benefits. Energy and Buildings. Special issue on urban research. Vol. 35, Issue 1, p , Elias, P.: From Vegetation Functions to Ecosystem Services. Život. Prostr., Vol. 44, No. 2, p , Federal Geographic Data Committee: National vegetation classification standard, version 2. FGDC-STD , Paganova, V., Jurekova, Z.: Woody plants in landscape planning and landscape design, Landscape Planning, Dr. Murat Ozyavuz (Ed.), ISBN: , InTech, Available from: 6. Residential Design Guide SPG 3, Available from: 7. Schutzki, R.E.: A Guide for the Selection and Use of Plants in the Landscape. Extension Bulletin E Michigan State University, Supuka,J. et al.: Landscape structure and biodiversity of woody plants in the agricultural landscape. Brno: Mendel University, 187 p., Supuka, J.: Vegetation formations as a tool for landscape formation. Život. Prostr., Vol. 32, No. 5, p , Supuka, J.: Anthropogenous and seminatural vegetation elements in the landscape network. Život. Prostr., Vol. 44, No. 3, p , US EPA: Reducing urban heat islands: Compendium of strategies. Trees and vegetation. 51

52 Chapter 5 - URBANIZMUS, INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM STATEMENT The continual interaction between man and environment, nature and civilisation, past and future, leads to permanent transformation of the material environment so it can completely fulfill society s needs, so as not to slow down its development but rather stimulate the social initiative. The development of society therefore enforces change of the environment in which life process is realized. The interaction of society and its environment is vividly demonstrated in residences, in the environment, where social activity is the most concentrated. Residences fundamental parts are comprised by architecture, architectonic and structural works and architectonic and urban complexes. Towns have always presented an expression, of nearly everything that human society has created, as well as a focus point for it. At the same time they have presented a examples of deficiency- social inequality, poor quality of the human environment, egoism etc. The remedy in regulation of the phenomena and processes mentioned above is offered through urbanism- a branch that is a synthesis of science, technology and art. 5.1 Fundamental terms The most prominent part of an environment that has a radical influence on the lives of people is spatial organization of the residential units-the equipment, individual devices, and the placement of it necessary to fulfil the essential needs, such as flats, civic centres, means of transport, objects production, cultural facilities, workplaces, sport facilities etc. In these artificially created structures the man spends most of his life. The main condition of their accurate function is their accurate placement. 52

53 The role of the architectonic and urban production is to properly synchronize all parts of the artificial environment and thus fulfil the material and spiritual needs of people Urbanism A term is derived from Latin word URBIS= TOWN and it presents: a set of working methods and procedures serving to intentional formation of the human settlement a general denomination for the social, artistic, industrial, functional, technical and economical connections of the residential structure, country, residence (town, village) and its parts (zones) that co-work and cannot be put into contrast. The urbanism as the synthesis of science, technology and art: has delimited purpose of research human residence, its observations form a compact system and the process of working includes the scientific methods of research and production (analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction,...), uses the observations of other scientific branches (natural, social and technical) deals with the intentional creation of the artificial, material environment; within its frame, the Spiritual culture presents art, law, morale and science and the results of these areas activities; They create the unity for the material culture and they influence each other, reflects and shapes the reality by the specific form, often in an artistic way, has many common elements and characteristic features as other arts (sculpture scenography, design), but it has certain specific features regarding the measure, use of materials and technical procedures, use of natural and artificial elements, is the creation in space and time. "Painter can know a lot, but he knows it after". In this idea, a value of getting-know is caught through the process of creation applied by painters and sculptors, what will be envied by urban-planners. They are destined to know a lot before the process of creation even begins. A mistake that would appear in the process of realization is difficult to be rectified and then not only an investor pays for this mistake but also the whole society, which is a user of the urban product. Urbanism as a technology initiates and applies the most effective systems of the transport solution and technical infrastructure, evaluates the technical, economical and energetic quality of structure. The focus of urbanism creation of new places and residences, development and reconstruction of existing places and residences, a theory The role of urbanism: totally manages the functionality and duty of residences, puts the accent on spatial, artistic and emotive aspects of the settlement The urban activity requires the following multidisciplinary professional substitution: 53

54 the main creator and coordinator is an architect- urban-planner, the following professional substitution: sociology, demography, transport, nature s protection and creation of the country, networks TI- water-supply, canalization, supply of electric energy, gas, warmth etc. Fig. 5.1 A contemporary public space in Chicago Urbanization Urbanization is a collection of processes concentrating inhabitants into residences (mainly of towns) and into residential structures that is influenced by economical, social, demographic and cultural factors of man and society. A further definition says that it is an extensive collection of changes in social and spatial society s connections taking place in different parts of the world, always in a certain specific historical stage. Changes appearing in the process of urbanization do not touch only the material and spatial dimensions of the town (expansion into the width and height), but it also touches the economical, institutional and social structure, a way of life, values, thinking and culture, as such. The result of urbanization is natural expansion of towns and depopulation of villages, what brings the advantages and problems, at the same time. It is associated with the beginning of the 19th century and it has continued up to this day with a rapid tempo- the metropolitan and industrial agglomeration. There are 150, 000 inhabitants in the world who daily move. In 2010 there were around 7 billion inhabitants and the UNO presupposes growth into 8-10,5 billion inhabitants by year 2050, out of which there will be 60 % in Asia, 25 % in Africa and 5 % in Europe. There were 50 % of towns inhabitants, while it is presupposed that the amount will grow into 70 % by year The amount of inhabitants of the developed countries is even higher- 75 % and it will be 86 %. In Slovakia it is 55 % and it is presupposed that it will grow into 70 %. 54

55 5.1.3 The residence The residence is a collection of human housing (cave, family house, block of flats ), creating a spatial unit (camp, colony, village, town, agglomeration ) that is organically connected to the productive activity of its inhabitants and to services adequate to the progress of their economic and social organizing. It is the space that fulfils the needs of society (the structure of needs is getting change with its development). It is a living system that has tendencies of "birth, growth, senility, degeneration and extinction". Towns represent qualitative tops. They bring the character of development from the past. They were considered to be the centres of crafts, commerce, administration, later industry and duties. Today, they are centres of different institutions and organizations while some have changed into the developing centres or even innovative poles of growth. Fig. 5.2 Examples of the wild development of some towns in the 19th and 20th century (Hrúza, 2007) The typology of residences- is a discipline dealing with the way of classifying different phenomena into certain typological groups based on the discovery of concordances and differences of the examined phenomena. The basic classification of residences is: quantitative extent (settlement, village, town, city), number of inhabitants, density, occupation etc. qualitative: - general aspect- origin and development, floor plan, culture and history, topography, meaning, - structural aspect- function, location of the settlement, spatial organization, composition, 55

56 - statistic aspect- demographic, social, economical Residences are basically divided into towns and villages, or residential units of town and village type. Components of the residence: according to the extent: object (building, road ), group of objects, zone, according to the function: dwelling (tent, caravan, dwelling-house, hotel ), equipping and recreational unit (tavern, library, pool ) and manufacturing unit (barn, work-room, factory...) The residential structure It s a way of composition and interconnections of residences including their relationship towards the country. Division of the residential structure: A - polycentric (conurbation)- approximately the same extent and relevance of residences, B - mono-centric (metropolitan agglomerations)- the domination of the core city Fig. 5.3 The conceptual scheme of the Slovak territorial development (Hrdina, 1995) Form of the spatial organization- reacts on the historical development, natural conditions and sources, working opportunities, transport etc. We know spatial organizations, such as: A radial, B linear, C grid. Types of residential systems (structures): A group, B - conurbation polycentric conurbation, C - agglomeration- mono-centric urban settlement, D - megalopolis- a collection of agglomerations and conurbations into upper units. 56

57 Fig. 5.4 The scheme of forms and types of residential structures (Hrúza, 1977) 57

58 Chapter 6 - TOWN AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TOWARDS THE WIDER SPACE 6.1 The town The town is defined as following: it is a residential unit created for the coexistence of inhabitants divided according to the division of labour and reflecting the multilateral differentiation of production and trade, which has different stages of social services- administration, protection, supply, culture, sport...; It fulfils the widest social and economic functions, concentrated grouping of huge amount of inhabitants and houses, which is organically "bound" to the non-agricultural production of inhabitants, administration, trade and services, serving its territory. 10, 000 years ago, there were around 8 million people living on Earth while nowadays there are more than 7 billion people. A characteristic point of the urban development in the 20th century was an increase of number of towns into more than 10, 000 inhabitants while in the 2nd half of the century it was more than a million inhabitants. At the beginning of the 20th century the population was divided, in an approximately equal way, into small towns (to 20, 000 inhabitants), middle towns (20-50, 000 inhabitants) and big towns/cities (more than 100, 000 inhabitants). In 1900, in the world there were eleven towns with more than a million inhabitants, out of which eight towns did not exceed the amount of 2 million and three towns had 2-4 million inhabitants. In 1950 a half of all inhabitants lived in cities (57 %) and there were 95 towns with more than a million inhabitants. In 2000 there were 190 towns, out of which 30 towns with more than 10 million inhabitants. Fig. 6.1 A central part of the town Vancouver 58

59 In SR the town has to fulfil the following terms and conditions according to the Law of SNC no. 369/1990 Zb.: it is an economic, administrative and cultural centre, touristic trade centre or spa (in the pastmax. 10 % of inhabitants working in the agriculture), it provides services also for inhabitants of surrounding villages (in the past- higher level of CF and TI- canalization, water-supply, gas-supply...), it has, at least from the part of the territory, a town s character of occupation (in the past- the density of the occupied zone was higher than 50 inhabitants/ha, higher occupation was centralized), has, at least, 5, 000 inhabitants. 6.2 The village Regarding the complexity, the village as the essential partner of the town should be mentioned, as well. Historically, it is the oldest type of the human residence that passed on. Characteristic features of the village in SR are: low occupation (1-2 NP), the amount of inhabitants less than 5,000, density of population not exceeding, 70 inhab./ha, min. 15 % of economically active inhabitants working in agriculture, bigger part of inhabitants that commute. The village has therefore economical, ecological and social functions that are used not only by the villagers but also by the region and state. 6.3 The region It s a territory, on which more residential units are placed, or it is a territory on which special interests are applied - the protection and formation of the country, the mining, agriculture, recreation..., The residential structure is given by placement, size, arrangement and mutual spatial and functional relationships of residences and other elements of the settlement- transport and technical network, productive, recreational and other zones lying out of the residences and out of the elements of the country. Every town creates conditions for its formation: concentric relationships- commutation, travelling for better CF..., dicentric relationships- travelling for recreation, looking for the new development of areas. 6.4 The agglomeration of town It s a designation for the whole, intensively used territory around the cities or territories, where the industrial production is concentrated and where the transport conditions are appropriate for providing all the required connections. 59

60 In the wider sense - it is a spatial concentration of activities and people focusing on their mutual benefit. 60

61 Chapter 7 - DETERMINERS OF THE TOWN S (RESIDENCE S) FORMATION Formation and development of residences is influenced by natural and socio-economical factors - determiners. 7.1 Natural determiners: abiotic- lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, pedosphere- the transition between biotic and abiotic systems (types of the soil, erosion...), biotic- flora, fauna, microorganisms. 7.2 Socio-economical determiners: the environment created by man- the forests and agricultural soil, hydro surfaces, urban territory, others (devastated surfaces, stone quarries, reservations...), the society - the social arrangement, demography (population, dynamics of the development, movement, age, distance and occupational structure, demographic capacity...), activities - productive: I. sector - exploration of natural sources, production and distribution of row materials and food- agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining, II. sector - row materials processing, production and distribution of goods, industry, III. sector non - productive economical activities, production and distribution of services- education, culture, art, social care, duties, retail trade, public procurement..., IV. sector - production and distribution of information- science, politics, data banks, finance... non - productive: housing, recovery, cultural and social activities, services... communication - movement systems that appear in residential structures, such as transport, water managing, energetic, piping, telecommunication and information-communication Fig. 7.1 A systemic model of the social environment (Steis, 1985) 61

62 Chapter 8 FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN (RESIDENCE) Town s formation is related to the division of labour and to the creation of first tribal and national units. Its purpose, spatial and functional arrangement and relationship towards its background, towards the country and settlement, have been changed with the history. 8.1 Creation of lower form of residences- communities and villages A Paleolith - creation of first permanent residences. The man- a hunter in the behavioural modernity lived mainly in a nomadic way of life- there was no intentional settlement. Growing-up, the man begins to cultivate nature by building-up the interventions and create artificial residential units: partitions, living holes, bothies from vegetal materials... According to the level of maturity, development of production forces and social organization, there are formed generic residences consisting of individual building units, as well as residences of collective nature built up out of the collective residential buildings. Fig. 8.1 Ways of forming first residences in the behavioural modernity- dotted space is selected for the cattle In A Neolith (barbaric stadium) man proceeds to breed animals and grow plants, enters into the stadium of increasing work production (the increase of population comes), he leaves the caves and other primitive residences and builds-up collective dwellings, villages near spaces of constant work. Families are gradually grouped into residences. There are created fatherlands, where the soil is collectively cultivated and every inhabitant is given a piece of arable land. The rest of the land, such as the meadowlands, forests, grasslands and water are used collectively. This is how villages, as higher functional units, are formed. 62

63 Fig. 8.2 Civil zones and areas in 2000 B.C. (crosswise hatching- a maternal area of town civilizations; dense vertical hatching- a secondary area of maternal civilizations; tenuous vertical hatching- a zone of villages; dotted hatching- an area of sheep breeding) (Hruška, 1961) Fig. 8.3 Shift of cultures ( B.C.) from today Kazakhstan to the territory of Europe (Hruška, 1961) 8.2 Formation of higher form of residences- towns and states The slavery (5 and B.C. - 4 th century A.D) A characteristic feature is use of metals (bronze, later iron) for production of working tools, through which better results in gaining food are achieved, what brings a support for groups of miners, furnacemen and smiths. There are also mingled "non-productive groups", such as priests, soldiers, merchants, officers etc. Between years 5000 and 3000 B.C, a division of labour, trading and social differentiation begin. The Near East- in the potamic zone (the basin of Rivers Nile, Euphrates and Tigris in Mesopotamia and basin of the river Ind) a specific level of class society is formed, which is linked with the formation of generously arranged buildings for water management (the barrages, irrigational system), realized by the state and collective slavery work- Babylon, Assyria, Egypt and others. The growth of materialistic culture in the Near East leads people to the formation of populous towns, where the crafts, the metal tools creation and trade with agricultural products are centralized from 63

64 surrounding villages. These are connected into one economic and administrative unit- state, whose territory is ruled by the town. The demonstrations: Inner conflicts and an inability of society to face the falling natural conditions lead to the fall of Asiatic and Egyptian culture. Another phase of the slave society is therefore developed in relatively better geographic conditions. Mediterranean Sea was such a place- firstly Phoenicia, Asia Minor, Greece ( B.C.), then Rome with its whole empire (until the 4 th century A.D.). Ways of the towns formation: - reinforcement of centrally placed residential districts, - colonization of economically profitable spaces- deltas (Marseille, Alexandria...), narrow seas (Tunis, Istanbul...), - formation of new towns, in spaces of contact between the higher culture and the lower oneexchange of products, slaves... (contact of Byzantium and Normans- formation of Russian towns on the Dnieper and Volga in the 9 th century). Colonization is an important factor for the towns formation. There occur immigrating tribes mixturing and blending with native inhabitants, what leads to higher economic and cultural forms. The differentiated zones of urban maturity are created. 8.3 The outline of the towns development I. phase of the slave society The national slavery of eastern countries (Mesopotamia, Egypt) is reflected as following: royal palaces and servants form an entity dominated by a temple. Priests and offices are centralized around the palace. The town is bounded by walls and canal. The processing street is extended through the centre of town and other streets are selected for housing and crafts. Temples consist of stone, baked clay and bricks. Water pipelines are built as well as irrigational systems... 64

65 Fig. 8.4 Examples from Babylon and Khorsabad (Hruška, 1961) Two upper pictures - an ideal reconstruction of Babylon (zikkurat and the main street with the gate from the Chaldean age); bottom picture - model of the Sargon palace in Khorsabad II. Phase of the slave society The Greek town In the end of the I. phase of slave society (3000 B.C), cultural life is transferred from inland primeval area of towns cultures to coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. The Phoenicians adopt the leading position. As advanced seafarers, they extensively colonize. Not many residential districts of this culture have been preserved, because they were destroyed by the sequence of disasters and reconstructions. Here is the top of the II. phase of slave society- from the 8 th century B.C. it has intensively dealt with the town colonization. It is moved from archaic town kingdoms to the democracy of reigning classes- despotism and religious cults are being outmatched. The Democratic phase is reflected as following: ordinary streets 65

66 aimed for living and the processing street, further a grandiose square- agora is a new democratic element serving as a meeting place for people surrounded by colonnades and market. It is localized in the centre, in the port or near the acropolis. New town entities are: acropolis- the fortress with temples, cash desks, terraces and monumental stairs... perking above the town amphitheatre- for the spirit development, arena, stadium, hippodrome- for the body and entertainment development hospital- body care, development of medical science. Two types of towns are known: - outgrowing, reacting to the morphology of terrain and character of space, - systematically built, Hippopotamus town- streets on the grid. In the 4 th century B.C, the size of Greek towns was around 10, 000 inhabitants- Athens 120, 000 inhabitants. In the 1 st century B.C. colonized towns spread into huge dimensions- Alexandria more than 0,5 mil., Palmira 0,6 mil. and Rome 1 mil. inhabitants. The Roman town - is great at engineering in towns and the whole regions that are equipped, in a civilized way, with communications, bridges, aqueducts, canalizations, meliorations and other technical buildings. Towns serve mainly as military camps, where the vivid commercial connection is being developed together with the subdued tribes behind the empire s boundaries. The spas, rental houses and business buildings are built. Houses are turned into the atrium. Triumphal memorials, temples and mausoleums are dominant. Roman towns, placed along the "limes Romanus" built in the 2 nd and 3 rd century A.D. as a chain of the bearing points against the Germans, Slavonians and other eastern tribes, are spread along the Danube (some monuments are also in Slovakia) and the Rhine up to England and Scotland. The ruins of these towns and camps become the base of new urbanization in Central Europe after decomposition of the empire. Fig. 4.5 Roman castra- the base of the Middle age urbanization of Southwest Europe (Hruška, 1961) 66

67 Ideological buildings, genuinely fortified shelters for inhabitants, are built on the most inaccessible residential district places, usually on the elevation (e.g. Troy, Thera, Athens etc.), or out of the towns (e.g. Delphi...) Feudalism (since the 9th century) The decomposition of the Roman Empire stimulated formation of feudal society- a new economic and social consolidation (the villeinage in feudal relationships and the guild system). The periphery of the Roman Empire becomes the main scene of the cultural development and life in Europe. The aristocracy, the church and craftsmen- villeins are formed. The commons is created. New towns are formed based on these facts: - the development of central village residences as a result of the change in social structure, - colonization in key geographic locations- intentional foundation of commercial towns in the slave society, - hill-forts transformation into towns, - on the boundary line of highly-developed culture with the less-developed one (change of agro products for metal tools...). The new residential structure of the 12 th - 15 th century in Western Europe is developed on the ruins of roman towns. The Germans and Slavonians create residences near forts and monasteries. In our territory, series of Celtic oppida are known from the prehistoric times- predecessors of town units destroyed by Germanic invasions. After the 6 th century and after the Germans departure, the Slavs get stronger what stimulates formation of new agricultural and roosted colonies. The growth of tribal baronies brings the need for centres and hill- forts. Castles and monasteries built on important strategic places as a symbol of feudal power- secular and clerical, represent expressive architectonic dominants of the provincial picture, what is proved even today by their relics- Spišský hrad, Starý hrad, Strečno, Orava, Trenčín, Stará Ľubovňa, Beckov, Levice, Skalka, Hronský Beňadik and others. Transforming into towns, the extramural settlement, monastic communities, commercial and mining communities present more and more expressive urban elements into the natural environment. By the end of the 15 th century they do not markedly influence on their surroundings, except the minimal stream managements for energetic purposes of primitive medieval production mechanisms and agricultural cultivation. More extensive interventions into the natural environment can be seen near mining towns, which need a great amount of water and wood to provide the business with their production and mining mechanisms. That is the reason why there appears a network of water management mechanisms (water pipelines for mines in Španá dolina, artificial lakes near Banská Štiavnica) and why there is a forests regression or formation of wooden communities lying deeply in forests. Real towns in Slovakia are formed in the 10 th - 12 th century out of the commercial and craft communities near shallows, mountain transitions or under the hill- forts. Landowners make a great profit from rich commercial and especially mining towns (Banská Štiavnica, where it is already mined in the Roman times- silver mines). From the 12 th to 14 th century the Arpad 67

68 kings in Slovakia colonized Germanic (mainly Saxony) inhabitants into new towns of the mining and commercial function (e.g. Spišská Nová Ves, colonized inhabitants from the mining town Jihlava). Placement of towns as commercial centres of certain agricultural background provides the base for economic and administrative districts- administrative areas, which have been preserved in our territory up to this day. What is therefore characteristic for the medieval town unit? While Rome is looking for plane, transparent positions corresponding to the clear rational spirit for its "castra", the Middle Age does not have any long unifying secular power. That is why the economic and social standard is being crushed. At first, unconquerable positions are searched but later also commercial and craft towns, whose centres are markets, and which are carefully fenced and fortified by walls and towers. The town is built on the genuine ruined property with twisting streets aiming to defence. Dual power of feudalism is reflected in the medieval town: - an aristocratic castle above the town, - a sacred temple in the town that is placed away from the market- square. Certain changes can be seen in colonial towns and towns of the later Middle Age. Towns are no longer protected by the castle and the power of a king is substituted by bourgeois, who build their town hall in the market square. All our towns (and most of the villages) are practically founded in the Middle Age and their original intention has been more or less preserved. We collide with this cultural heritage in any kind of the urban intention. Absolutism The Renaissance has not left any essential urban conceptions from the 16 th century. It comes to us from Italy through the Alps. The aristocratic philosophy is applied in building-up palaces, summerhouses, gardens and bourgeois houses, as well. In our territories there is no essential urbanization, foundation of towns but rather gothic towns having been preserved, adapted and rebuilt according to the spirit of the new concept. The fishpond cultivation is developed- the influence of provincial cultivation- Southern Czech and some regions of Southern Slovakia. These times, they reach remarkable results- universal provincial cultivations (predecessor of land-use planning) using natural and biological materials and complex effect of the water management cultivating works from economical, soil and climatic point of view. In the 17 th and 18 th century almost every gothic town is rebuilt in the spirit of baroque urban conception. If the gothic town is the result of functional laws of feudal society in spite of its picturesque and apparent mess, then era of Renaissance and Baroque comes from dispositions of artistic intentions or even from the intentional "composition" (architectonic and urban composition is intensified as an ideological tool of the antireforming agitation, mainly in the Baroque). New works of baroque and classicistic urbanism are created in Western and northwest Europemedieval towns reconstructions, foundation of new large-scale town conceptions and elaborately composed public spaces. The baroque s shaping of silhouette of town and country is expressively manifested even in our lands, where it should have served to strengthen the position of foreign aristocracy, as well as that of the 68

69 Catholic Church. The most notable examples are presented by "baroquization" of Prague and tenths of Czech and Slovak towns (e.g. Bratislava and Trnava) by building-up churches, monasteries, aristocratic palaces, by reconstruction of old castles, by planting alleys along the roads that lead to mansions or to aristocratic manors and by building-up new cult buildings based on the distinctive points of the settled country (Spiš). It can be said that modification of the country provided in the final stadium of feudal society means high aesthetic and biological evaluation of the European natural environment, which does not have an equivalent in the further capitalistic society. The Baroque deforms inner functions to reach initially intentioned effect. Instructed by Antique and Renaissance, the Baroque develops dispositions into the "tridents" out of the classic expression of symmetry and axis. It also involves the country and garden into their extended spatial compositions and it opens the town into the country (palaces, the castle parks, calvaries). The country is intentionally "architectonized": there are founded "national roads" with alleys and there are placed crosses and sacral sculptures. In other words, the unified cultural character covers the whole land Capitalism The Early Capitalism (begins at the end of the 18 th - beginning of the 19 th century) is fated by the development of science, technique (steam engine...), technology (gun-powder...) and transport (railways, later cars...). The colonies are created and the international business flourishes- all of these have the impact on the traditional town that "is not able to cope with". Manufactures are created, the fences are crossed, the country is exploited and rivers are used as transport lines and sewers. The harmonic model of feudal town and wider residential structures are disrupted. There is a coming of economics and purpose. Capitalism in its supreme phase (mainly in the period of imperialism) disrupted the towns structure. Towns stopped being presented as a work of art. Compositions do not have a decision-making function any more and the soil is used not bearing in mind the urban-spatial characteristics nor the ideology, function of building work (as the Middle Age did) nor the artistic intention of an architect- town-planner (as the Baroque or Classicism did). Thanks to their suitable geographical position, enterprises and residences vividly grow, as well as the agricultural work is vividly concentrated into the suburbs of those feudal towns, which are placed near the transport roads. The growth of the periphery is unplanned. There are placed industrial factories, stores, flats for employees but also technical equipment- gas companies, power plants, meat works and markets. New forms of transport, especially railways, acquire a special importance. New materials such as steel, concrete, ferro-concrete, prestressed concrete become being used, which enables building-up of greatly expanded constructions- factories, halls, exhibitory pavilions, stations, railways and roads bridges. New constructions unlock building-up skywards. It was also enabled by the lift invention (firstly hydraulic, later electric). Unpredictable shifts of population begin, which changes the meantime balance of the "teresian" or even older districts structure. Overpopulated villages were consumed by wars or illnesses. The development of production powers (higher productivity of industrial production) draws off the 69

70 population that move or cumulate from a distance due to the production. In 1948 there were 70 % of working population commuting in ČSR due to the industrial production (distance of 30 or more km). Capitalism cancelled a historic territorial composition creating new attractive territories of the industrial production. The effort to decentralize large industrial agglomerations and the attempt to build-up residences intentionally and to plan the land-use in the country has the anti-urban tendency- to lead the population away to new residences. In England 1848 the Public Health Act was approved. 70

71 Chapter 9 THE SEARCH FOR THE PATTERN OF A CONTEMPORARY TOWN "There is no past, needed to be looked about for; there is only eternally new, growing out of the fortune of the elements of the past; the purpose of the real desire is to always create new and better. " J.W. Goethe ( , a German poet, dramatic, humanist, scientist, politician and philosopher) The cause of searching for the pattern of a contemporary town is the reversed economic, social and demographic changes of the 19 th century and the town s irrepressible growth. The purpose is to coordinate the decomposition of the town and to find the principles of the intentional de-concentration. Many great architects and town-planners were dealing with the prognosis of the settlement and they were able to explain and justify their opinions theoretically. Their solutions touched the composition and function of towns and their individual parts, as well as the regional dimension of the settlement. The aim has been to create a comfortable and pleasant town. 9.1 The ideal town It s a concept of the residence that is ideally designed according to the rational, aesthetic, functional and ideological conceptions. It is an eternal topic- even in the epochs of Chinese dynasties, Indian tractates, Sumerian epos, as well as in old cultures in Africa and America. Plato thinks about it as well as Aristotle, Vitruvius; even the Bible and the Koran write about it- the New Jerusalem and Paradise Garden. 9.2 Conceptions of the town in the 19th century Society is keen on searching for the pattern of the modern town- Utopians and later avant-garde architects help- the common feature was statics and the image of a perfect and eternally valid solution. In the 19 th century the base of the modern urbanism theory was founded. Its theoretic key points can be divided as following: - anti-urbanisation placing towns into the urbanized country, - creation of satellites and garden towns, - strip decentralization of towns, - super-urbanization- compression of towns by vertical buildings, - regeneration of already existing towns (there belongs the care for historical towns centres), - residential structure regulated by land use planning. The linear town The necessity to overcome larger distances between the dwelling-place and workplace in the industrial towns of the 19 th century influenced the creation of new forms of transport. In a time when 71

72 the car did not exist, the railway transport was quite significant. It stimulated the conception of the linear town. The transport line creates the main plan of the town s floor plan and influences the price of lands, as well. Fig. 9.1 Example of the linear town- Madrid, 1892 (Hrúza, 2007) The garden town Originates in the faith of the positive environmental influence on the man and in the premise that the industry makes greater profit from the satisfied, well-lived and relaxed employee. Its roots are connected to the utopian socialist R. Owen ( ). The concept of E. Howard ( ) - six towns with 30, 000 inhabitants were surrounded around the central town with 58, 000 inhabitants. Even the production was there. The basic unit was presented by the precinct having 5, 000 inhabitants and a park in the centre with the extent 59 ha. All the soil was owned by an investor. Residents rented it. If the allowances were fulfilled, another town was built. Changes inside of the town The restructurating inside of the town was as necessary as excluding problems from the town. E. Hénard ( ) was the initiator. He designed a differentiation of the traffic, vertical segregation of functions, fly-over crossroad and a meandrine way of build-up area to eliminate the noise and 72

73 exhaust fumes from the traffic. He localized the system of parks and gardens, max. 1 km apart from each other and squaries (small parks), 0,5 km away from the dwelling place. He used height pointsthe towers. The industrial town T. Garnier ( ) was the initiator- he designed the town for 35, 000 inhabitants along the river, 6 km long and 0,6 km wide, with complex industrial distribution including location, development and structure. He designed zones of housing, recreation and civil facilities in relationship with the other parts. Fig. 9.2 Example of the garden town- England, end of the 19th century (Hrúza, 2007) The decentralized town It was developed by many architects and town-planners, such as: - F. L. Wright- controlled anti-urbanization- "... even the small town is too big...", - E. Saarinen- organic decentralization inspired by the cell structure of living organisms, - R. Hillebrecht- the effective development of satellite towns up to 40 km. 9.3 Other urban theories from the beginning of the 20th centuries The optimal town - searching for the quantitative limit guaranteeing its complex balance not possible to be defined. The dynamic town - responds to the uncontrolled development of the "static" traditional towns. The functionalistic town (The Attic charter) - optimal organization of 4 main functions: housing, work, recreation, transport. The new town - the reason is to "lighten" the development of the genuine town, the metropolis 73

74 The parallel town - the name comes from the Paris - Expansion in It designates urban planning of the town to a similar extent as "the mother town", the original one. The zonal town - parallel, side by side ordering of the functional zones enabling their shortest crosswise connection The regional town - comes from the belief that the town is not an isolated unit in the country, but its component The loosened town - "to set free" from the compact form of the traditional town The factory town - built in order to provide production and housing with services in one residential unit (near Turin - Olivetti, near Essen- Krupp, near Chicago - Pullman...). The spiral town - building up the town on the basis of covering the previous phases. Fig. 9.3 The spiral town- the scheme (Hrúza, 1977) I. Corbusier ( ) - a French architect and town-planner of Swiss origin claims that: "The town is a working tool. Towns do not fulfil this function these days. They are useless, exhaust body and destroy the soul. Chaos is increased there and they destroy our dignity. They are not worthy of our epoch nor ourselves." He set the basic principles of modern architecture in " Five articles of the new architecture", which significantly influenced the architectonic and urban production of the 20 th century: - stilts lifting up the house above the ground, which causes the flat to gain much more light and frees the ground-floor for parking places and gardens, - rooftop garden application as the private, intimate outer space, - free floor-plan; as a result of installing the skeleton construction, it is possible to use structurally individual independent inner walls, - strip window application, which guarantees more perfect lighting, - free facade application, which is in the structural sense free from the basic skeleton (hung facade). 74

75 Fig articles of the new architecture- the scheme (Hrúza, 1977) 9.4 The period after the second world war in Slovakia - socialism The social property of production devices and the dictatorship of the proletariat defined the priorities in building-up towns after the World War II. in ČSR, later ČSSR. The emphasis was put on the fast and cheap satisfaction of great demands on new flats. The basic feature was construction of the complex dwelling space- residential districts standardized by flat-houses, "blocks of flats" and basic civil facilities. There were often no sources for advanced facilities. The national standardization unified residential districts too much and the purpose of the construction in towns made them unattractive. The amelioration of the environment, especially the greenery out-planting remained at the rear. "The blocks of flats" decorated by civil facilities and ideological symbols dominated the image of the town. Unsolved problems remained in traffic, mainly in the parking and garaging of personal cars, while public transport was accentuated. Special emphasis was put on the development of the spa, recreation and sport. Railway transport was supported as was the developed public transport in towns. Large hydroelectric and energy plants were built. The development of the economical base was strategic- the industry in towns, agriculture in villages and forestry in country-sides. The territorial development was planned and then realized in 5 cycles. The hierarchal system of the settlement was applied bringing "centralization" of residences. In 1976 the modern Building Act no.50, which is used to this day, was adopted. 75

76 Chapter 10 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS HELPING THE TOWN DEVELOPMENT The high tempo of introducing new scientific and technical information to all areas of social life was typical of the 20 th century. At the same time it was a source of two world war conflicts, which was reflected in the destruction of towns. This led to international meetings of experts with the aim of searching for solutions and new, progressive ideas The Attic Charter (Athens 1933) The town was defined as a part of the economical, social and political entity of a certain territory or region. It is necessary to accept geographical, topographic, economical and political conditions for its consideration and understanding. These conditions have always been changing with its development; and they therefore sequentially influence the changes related to the character of the town. Naming the main problems consequently led to outlining the main possibilities of how to improve the situation or how to avoid generations of new negatives in the space of towns. Among the main solutions proposed there belong: - booking the most attractive spaces of the town for housing - keeping hygienic parameters of housing - distances between residential quarters and arteries, junctions loaded by the traffic - refusing the circuit streets construction - industrial construction of greenery, recreational and sport surfaces - using the existing natural attributes - planned selection of surfaces for the allocation of the industrial production - analysis and differentiation of the traffic - creation of space for pedestrians and cyclists - protection of the historical heritage - healthy arrangement of housing in the historical structure. In the viewpoint against the traditionalism in the architecture there is introduced and emphasised the idea that "the urbanism should not be exclusively submitted to aesthetic rules, in its essence it is a functional order". It formulated the ideas of the functional town. According to these principles, the town was, from the functional point of view, divided into the following basic function zones: The dwelling zone- that is built-up mainly by dwelling objects. There belong precincts, streets, squares, greenery and reserved surfaces. Only the operation of services for inhabitants and the maintenance is tolerable. The administration should form the individual element in the relationship towards the dwelling zone and towards industrial workplaces. The working zone- is divided into the agricultural production, industry, stores and storage economy, engineering and technical devices. It should be at the suitable place from the point of view of hygiene, commutation and traffic line-up. The rest zone- is designed for public recreation. There belong continuous green surfaces of greater extent, such as parks, stations and swimming pools. 76

77 The transport system- has a line character and provides relationships among basic functional spaceshousing, production and recreation Other agreements The Venetian Charter (Venice 1964)- the international charter about the preservation and restoration of monuments. It considers historical monuments to be the common heritage and it is therefore important to provide their protection for further generations. It sets basic principles of conservation and restoration of monuments. It defines the conception of the historical monument: the architectonic product or the town or village residence that provides an evidence of civilization s separateness in order to the development or the historical event. The Assembly in Lausanne (1973) took place under the slogan "The face of the street in historical towns". The participants were evaluating the street in the historical town as the natural environment of inhabitants. The general conference of the OSN for education, science and culture of NAIROBI (1976)- About the historical files: - about the testimony of their fortune and cultural diversity, - about the need to save and integrate them into life, -about the relation with these times. The Torremolin Charter (1983)- The European charter of regional and spatial planning. It characterizes the function of land use planning (LP) as a prominent tool in the development of the European communion leading to the European identity fixation. The Washington Charter (1987)- The international charter for saving historical towns. It is particularly needed in preserving these values of the town: - town form defined by the allotment, - relationships among town spaces, - the form and appearance of buildings, - relationships of the town towards the surrounding environment, - the function of the town in the history The New Attic Charter (1998) It was prepared by the European committee of town-planners (association of town- planners from 11 states in Europe) and it puts the citizen into the centre of decision-making. The development of towns is seen as a co-operation of different social forces and key factors of public life. The town-planner has a crucial role as a qualified coordinator and mediator. Main rules of the urban planning If the urban planning is to be successful, town-planners need to gain the permission of community associations and commercial spheres. Tendencies signify that the town of the future will not be monocentric but poly-centric. It is necessary to support hybrid development enabling citizens to live near workplaces instead of single-purpose zoning. Towns should be planned on the basis of their extent and functions regarding ecological criteria and permanent development keeping. Towns will continue 77

78 being the engine of the economical development influencing the prosperity even surrounding village areas. New desirable principles designed for the 21 th century The key point is to fulfil the needs of the future town and the desires of citizens. From the charter text it is possible to feel the effort to make the citizen the centre of planning and forming the political development. The file of recommendations is oriented toward several key areas: - The town for everybody- all the inhabitant groups (including new immigrants) should be integrated into social, economical and cultural life in the town by the planning of the development and socio-economical arrangements. - The real interest of citizens- the town development planning should by hierarchically ordered to make it more available for citizens. - Contact among people - public spaces should be renewed so they become an effective place, where the sense for community, social activities and vitality are developed. Parks and recreational facilities inside the town should be preserved and renewed while abandoned objects of late factories and barracks should be used for social and welfare functions. - The continuity of the environmental character- in future, urban planning should reinforce and develop building traditions, which provide an expressive character and identity to a certain town or region. Artistic solution should come from the visual, cultural, functional and historical appraisal of the territory as well as its characteristics. - Usefulness of new technologies- information technologies improve and extend possibilities of communication but their importance continues to keep at the forefront the personal contact that cannot be replaced by electronic communication. Planning should encourage optimal use of informational technologies available for all the citizens to reach the maximal benefit of citizens. - Aspects of the environment - principles of the sustainable development should become. The base of urban planning while the citizen would be at the centre of activity. Planning should support: - non- renewable resources preservation, - saving energy and introducing pure technologies, - reducing pollution, - excluding or limiting wastes and their recycling, - soil management as non-renewable resource and regenerator of devastated surfaces. - Economical activities- were always important in towns formation. The urban development is a tool of prosperity in the economical sphere. 78

79 Chapter 11 THE FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE TOWN Watching out of the plane, the town can be divided into main parts- zones, in which certain function predominates. In accordance with the previous chapter we will be able to identify generally dominating housing and civil facilities, then production (1 st -4 th sector), recovery (in the artificial and natural environment) and all of these connected by transport skeleton and by capillaries of the technical equipment (drinking water supplies, canalization, electric energy, warmth, gas and other supplies) The dwelling zone The housing- a collection of processes, needs and activities of man related to the provision of his biological and physical demonstrations, reproduction of health and working power, protection from danger and discomfort, reproduction and preservation of the family line, conditions for upbringing, education, culture, fulfilling ethic and aesthetic needs. The housing is realized in the dwelling space. The base is presented by demographic data of inhabitants. Among important factors influencing housing there belong the multiplicity and structure of the family, its dynamic of changes, habits, life style, age of family members (adults, children, older generation), employment of individual family members (increased percentage of employed women), free time spending, formation of new professions, increase of qualification, lengthening of the retirement time, increase in housework sharing etc. The differentiation in the social composition of families defines the variety of basic functions of housing. The qualitative level of housing is expressed in the surface of flat or in the dwelling surface of flat for 1 inhabitant. Comparing to EU countries, where it is m 2 for an inhabitant, the surface standard in Slovakia is lower (48m 2 of the dwelling surface/1 flat, in other words 14,8 m 2 / 1 inhabitant). It is necessary to create suitable functional and operational arrangement and DS division for the favourable development of basic housing functions. The density, division and height of housing buildings and keeping distances have to meet the demands for the flats lightening, keeping the privacy, fire protection, civil defence and demands for the creation of green surfaces. Functional elements of the dwelling space (DS): - dwelling houses- family houses, flat-buildings, poly-functional, integrated and special houses, - facilities of civil, transport and technical equipment- the scale of objects, equipments and functional surfaces that provide full complexity of services for the man and society, - other facilities and functional surfaces- can be productive, recreational, greenery etc. The basis in DS operation: - DS is basic life environment for children as well as for the immobile group of inhabitants, - DS stimulates the life rhythm of practically half of the population, in full extent, - basic aims of DS must be available for out of flat (and reciprocally) pedestrianization, - the pedestrian will not be endangered by the car in the area of main pedestrian ways, - the optimal attendance distance is differentiated according to the age and social 79

80 group of inhabitants, frequency of facility use, activity character in it and according to the purpose; we distinguish 1 st - 4 th zone (400 m - KG, PS, bus stops of PT, CG..., 1000 m - bank, shoe shop...), - ground communications must provide an access to all the buildings in DS, - parking places for vehicles must be instituted in the capacity corresponding to the needs of the dwelling zone and to the perspective level of motorization, - the distance the parking space edge contiguous to dwelling houses cannot be less than 15 m. Health and hygienic demands of DS Lightening of dwelling buildings and their exterior The object or space alone can fulfil the conditions of isolation but in the urban structure it can be partially or completely shaded by another object or it can inappropriately shade another object or surrounding. The general demand is to provide the lightening of exterior spaces for children games and adults recovery in time from 9 a.m-3 p.m, at least for 3 hours. In ordering dwelling objects the recommended distances can be presented depending on the height of the object: - in the direction from south 2 heights of the object (min. 1,6 x), - from south-west and south-east- 1,5 heights of the object (min. 1,25 x), - from west and east- 2,5 heights of the object (min. 2 x). The purity of the air - preferring of : - leeward, non-inverse and elevated surfaces, mild slopes, - surfaces out of the air draught and air turbulence, - surfaces out of the influence of the production and transport. Plenitude of the greenery The greenery ventilates and humidifies the air, shades, make DS being aesthetic and change its scenery. Being the inseparable component of the dwelling zone, the greenery must correspond, in its extent, to the aesthetic and hygienic needs. Within its frame the playgrounds for children, as well as for the adults, can be arranged. Individual zones of the residential units must be reasonably equipped by green surfaces. The way of designing green surfaces, 80

81 Fig Economical evaluation of different types of constructions (Kavan, 1984) 11.2 Productive s activities The mining Mining works are realized in mining spaces of un-restricted minerals, whose deposits are not appropriate for the industrial mining. They are generally placed in the wide open space, eventually in the productive zone of the residential unit. Their ordering must fulfil the basic conditions of the 81

82 productive process, factory transport, energy transfer, demands of the fire protection and civil defence, work safety and technical equipments and hygienic demands. If there are created overburdened, dumped or waste substances during the operation of buildings, the separated surfaces in the space of mining works (eventually in their neighbourhood) must be set apart and modified for their storage. If mining works have disturbing effects on the surrounding, the protective zone will be established. The energetic and telecommunication wires and conduits of the public water pipeline cannot traverse through the space of buildings for mining works nor can buildings for housing be established there. Buildings for mining works must be connected through the communication connector or purposive communication to the network of roads or local communications. They cannot be connected directly to the speed roads. In cases when trucks provide the transport of mined out substances or wastes, the parking places are established as a part of the building The industrial production Its concentrating to zones is effective. They are established in residences with great volume of industrial production and transport. The capacity and solution of transport and distribution networks in them must provide the conditions for the transport of people, goods, row materials and energies. Buildings with hygienically unobjectionable operation and with the highest concentration of working forces are place on the side adjacent to the dwelling zone. Buildings, whose operation is hygienically corrupted but the level of corruption considering the effects on the environment does not demand to remove the building to the borders of the residential unit, are placed to the distant surfaces. Even the permanent building yards are placed in the zone for the industrial production in residential units with the intensive investing construction. Greenery surfaces, which are part of the zone, must contribute to the sanitation of the working space as much as possible and enable relaxing. The greenery is mostly set up in protective zones of the industrial factories. According to the nature of the industry s harmful effects and the functions of the protective zone, there can be also placed hygienically unobjectionable buildings (plants, garage stores etc.) Storing precincts are established as part of productive zones in cases of great turnover of goods and raw materials. They are placed in productive zones, eventually in protective zones but also as separated zones- logistic parks. They must provide the needs of material-technical supply of residential units or they eventually must fulfil the district, regional or nationwide needs. The stores and storage surfaces serving exclusively the needs of productive factories are generally placed on the lands of these factories. Buildings for industry are mainly placed in the productive zone of residential units, eventually in the dwelling zone or in the wide open space, as well. In the industrial zone, there are concentrated the buildings, whose harmful effects can be decreased to the acceptable level through the protective zone. In the dwelling zone, there can be placed the buildings, whose demands on the transport of goods and raw materials do not evoke unacceptable overloading of the transport. Buildings requiring such an extensive protective zone to disturb the urban 82

83 ordering of the residential unit are placed in the wide open space- metallurgical production, power industry. Buildings with a nuclear-energetic facility are placed in the wide open space or on the territory of residential units, according to the level of protection. The level of protection and the relating protective zone will be set by the Slovak committee for atomic energy. In the protective zone of the nuclearenergetic facility there can be established only buildings necessary for the operation of this facility and buildings of the transport and distribution of networks, with an exception of highways, speed roads, national tracks and public water pipelines. Buildings ordering for industry must meet the conditions of the productive process, interoperable and factory transport, transfer of energies, demands of the fire protection and civil defence, work safety and technical equipment and hygienic demands. Public over-land communications, distant energetic and telecommunication wires and conduits of the public pipeline cannot traverse through the building land. The connection of buildings for industry to the network of roads and local communications must provide continual and undisturbed operation of the factory and public transport. The connection to the speed roads must be realized through the connecting lane. Factory communications must firstly fulfil the needs of production, fire safety and civil defence and form transparent traffic network. They should be separated from the railway trailers, eventually from the over-land communications reserved for the pedestrians. Routes of workers arrival and main routes of workers movement inside of the building cannot cross routes of the intensive freight transport at the same level. Necessary crossing of main. The parking place for vehicles will be established near every building for the industry. Its extent is based on the number of workers of the strongest working shift and number of visitors. In cases when the raw materials or goods transport is provided by truck vehicles, the separated parking place for these trucks must be established near the building, as well. Each building for the industry must have min. 2 driveways allied to the network of factory communications. Buildings for the industry, within the operation of which there are created recyclable wastes, must be equipped by spaces and facilities for wastes managing. Wastes, which are not recycled must be destructed or safely stored. On the un-built surfaces of the building land the greenery will be set. The trees and bushes on these surfaces should create a protection inside of the industrial buildings and should contributes mainly for softening of the unfavourable effects, noisy and dusty operations Storage Storage buildings are placed mostly in the productive zone, eventually in protective zones or in the wide open space as part of buildings for the industry or agriculture or as the separated campuses for storage or logistics. The regulations for industrial or agricultural buildings are applied to the placing, arranging and equipping of storage buildings, which are part of industrial or agricultural factories. Buildings for goods and substances storage creating reservoirs for covering the needs of the national economy can be placed in the wide open space. 83

84 Separated storage buildings must be allied to the road or local communications, eventually to the national road. Connection to the speed roads must be realized by the connecting lane. The separated parking places for vehicles will be established near storage buildings allied to the overland communications. Rain waters on the land of separated storage buildings must lead into the canalization or they must eventually be drained away through the modified surface soil stacks. It must be provided that the rain waters will not be polluted by stored substances or by the manipulation with them in unacceptable way. Separated storage buildings will be allied to the energetic or telecommunication distributing networks when necessary. Storage buildings arrangement must provide the concentration of storages, buildings for administration and control and for the hygienic facilities etc. on the separated surfaces. Individual storages must be purposively allied to the factory communications and trailers. Public over-land communications, distant energetic and telecommunication wires and conduits of public water pipeline cannot traverse through the building land. Storage buildings must be carefully fenced. The corresponding protective mound or another corresponding facility must be established near the buildings for products and substances storage, which can threaten the surrounding environment by the explosion. The protective zones must be established for storage buildings according to the type of the stored material The greenery The greenery in the residential unit presents surfaces covered by different types of vegetation covering, which are biological elements of the material environment. The greenery creates an organic part of the inner residential structure and in exterior parts it functions as an integrating element of the residence and surrounding country. The residential greenery creates a compact system. The meaning and functions of the greenery in the environment of residential units. In accordance with the urban production, the greenery can be considered as the functional subsystem of the residential unit working mainly in two ways of functional scopes: - in the function of biological - hygienic scope, - in the function of space-productive scope. In the position of biological-hygienic effects we can specify its further functions: a) Hygienics, sanitation - improving of hygienic conditions of the environment, air conditions, soil and water treatment, - antibacterial effects. b) Re-naturalization - reinforcement of the natural elements effects in the urban environment, - reduction of environmental climatic extremes, - water and soil protection, - reduction of wind effects. c) Re-cultivation- repeating land improvement (through the wood-pulp vegetation) 84

85 Space-productive effects of the greenery are further specified as: a) welfare, social effects: - the amount of the greenery in forming different categories of the environment according to the demands of the society (dwelling, recreational, productive,... environment), - favourable influence on the social contacts, - educational influence of the greenery (relationship towards the nature, aesthetic feeling). b) urban-architectonic effects: - application of the greenery as the material element in the space in its complex forming, - application of the greenery in the position of composition and aesthetic influence on the environment, including the symbiosis with the artistic work. c) isolative, protective effects: - protection against the unfavourable phenomena in the environment (exhalations, dust nuisance, noise, radiation, stinks etc.), - an optic isolation of the unfavourable units in the environment, - anti-erosive precautions, - protective tracks of the coastal greenery near water surfaces and water flows. The urban-architectonic effect of the greenery is closely related to the artistic values of the environment. The greenery creates an impressive contrast with geometrically sculpted materials of objects through its organic shapes. The important factor is also the colourful change and change of shapes as well as the growth in time. Individual functions were separated from each other for better understanding of the extent of the greenery effect. It is necessary to emphasise the meaning of its integrated complex effect on the quality of environment and harmonic development of the man and society. The greenery has functions of ecological, social and economic character. Categorization of the greenery in the town environment The functional subsystem "the greenery" is divided into the following main groups of functional elements: - The basic greenery of dwelling complexes- all the greenery surfaces that are necessary for complex functions of housing and that are localized within the dwelling zone with the maximal access 500 m, - The public greenery provides short-time recreation for inhabitants (parks, promenades, riversides etc.), - The accompanying greenery of facilities the greenery of upper civil equipments facilities (those of sport, recreation, production), - Special greenery the greenery of other special focus, e.g. cultural (botanic garden, the greenery near the historical objects), hygienic (isolative greenery of production, protected greenery of water sources and facilities, etc.). The residential vegetation can be classified and characterized according to the following value elements: According to the surface-spatial features (ground plan s shape and extent): 85

86 - Surface modified into parks into 0,5 ha (near houses, important buildings, squares, yards etc.), - Small parks 0,5 ha 2,0 ha (near school and health institutions, in the dwelling areas, near the sport and recreational centres etc.), - Park of more than 2,0 ha (of central, town and upper-town character), - Park avenue- boulevard (line type in the centre of town- wide street with cultural and aesthetic importance), - Vegetation track (most frequently with the protective and eco-stabilizing function lengthwise the road and railway communications, on the slopes and water flows coasts and on surfaces, protective vegetation of the productive factories), - Trees alley ( in the streets of towns and villages), - The group of trees, bushes or solitaires (near houses, artistic and religious buildings and work of arts, etc.). According to the compositionally- architectonic and historically-cultural features: - Regular- architectonic gardens and parks (medieval monastic and castle gardens, renaissance, baroque and rococo gardens, parterre and sentimental parks, dendrological parks and gardens), - Irregular wide open space elements (English wide open space elements but also small wide open space Chinese and Japanese gardens, new-age modern parks but also park forests and forest parks near town residences, recreational and medical centres), - Combined compositionally combined parks (consist of regular park modification in the contact zone of the representative building and partially from irregular - wide open space park modification creating the rest of the park; into this category there can be classified even some arboreta and botanic gardens with scientific and public use). According to the location in the residence we distinguish: - suburban greenery, - central greenery, - greenery of the dwelling complex or industrially- residential campus, - greenery as a park modified surface near the building (school, medical institution, town hall, parliament, residence of the government and president etc.). According to the way of use and access: - public greenery (parks and vegetation elements of the whole-town importance), - reserved greenery (of dwelling complexes, schools, shopping centres, medical objects, parliaments, residences of presidents and monarchs), - special (botanic gardens, ZOO, cemeteries etc.). According to the predominant function (or collection of functions: - social functions (recreational, sport, cultural, historical, medical and aesthetic), - environmental functions (climatic, protective, hygienic, isolative), - ecological functions (ecological meaning of the country, segment, genetic resource, biocorridor, bio-centre, eco-stabilization element). 86

87 The overview of ways of categorizing the greenery in the town environment is presented as an orientation tool to form opinions on the intentional setting-up certain enclaves of the town greenery, which are part of the residential country complex and system of the whole residential unit. Principles of setting-up the system of town greenery The urban and architectonic greenery solution in the residential unit firstly means to create a concept or a harmonic cooperation of park, orchard and garden objects, which are composed in an exacting way, in the urban structure of the residential unit. The base for managing this role can be formulated in the following principles: The initial material for new concept is precise understanding of the contemporary condition of natural elements of the residential unit. It is needed to provide the whole scale of surveys from setting-up a dendrological value of elements to the analysis of the compositional principles in the existing park objects. The concept of new solution is needed to be based on the principle of harmonic effect of the urban structure, natural objects and elements in the spirit of the contemporary trends in the park and countryside production. The greenery, in all of its various manifestations, is needed to be considered as an equal part of materially-spatial structure of the residential unit, where all its characteristics are applied in the composition, namely: - shape of the object, - texture of the surface (e.g. the lawn, frondescence of wood-pulps etc.), - colourfulness (including the changes during the seasons), - proportionality (relative and absolute), - contrast (material, structural, colourful). Perception of the greenery in the environment takes place in the position of three levels: herbal, bushy and tree-like. The mutual configuration of materially- spatial composition of the greenery in all of these three levels enable creating of unforgettable complexes. Forming the objects of the greenery can be set on two basic compositional principles: - bound compositional (historicist) modification following the principles of the French classicistic park- is appropriate as a part of parterre s modification in a direct connection to the dominant objects of the historical centre of palace character, - free park modification following the countryside principles of an English park uses natural organic shapes of natural elements. The greenery of central spaces of the residential unit (including the historical centre) should not have dominant influence that would be in conflict with cultural- historical values of spaces and social demands on their use (gathering, taking place of different episodic events- cultural, commercial, sport etc.) The greenery in residential units should have clear functional differentiation with set functional priorities and activities, in other words, preferable activities in the space it occurs. In spite of the permanent greenery even the mobile greenery can be used in the residential unit (in accordance with the influence of climatic conditions) that is applied in the space only in certain time of year or in certain time limited period of temporal modifications of some of the town space. 87

88 Chapter 12 THE URBAN COMPOSITION 12.1 An aesthetic point of view The definition of the composition: arranging and forming all the elements of the residence or its parts into the intentional entity. It manifests: - the process activities that integrate components into the entity, - the status composition becomes the carrier of information about the meaning of individual elements and their connection to the entity. "The order" of the urban composition is defined by setting the rules into the process of organizing the material environment, which are dynamic, and it consists in achieving: - an integrity, - a balance, - differentiation, - hierarchy. Factors of the urban composition (UC): - the structure presents the way of inner connection of elements and parts that are intercoordinated among each other and globally (connected- interrupted, concentrated free structures...), - the expression specifies UC and express mainly: - an ideological intention (reflection of the social importance), - an aesthetic- artistic order, - an artistic impressiveness (formation of the emotional relationship towards the environment), - readability of the composition (the condition of environmental identity). Categories of UC: the scale, proportion, rhythm, symmetry- asymmetry, gradation, dominant, accent, contrast 12.2 Picture of the urban space in the conscious of man Factors of the picture: - the levels of perception aesthetic and semantic information form resultant aesthetic impression, - the physiology of perception in the horizontal and vertical level we differentiate: - peripheral perception normal perception complex perception focused perception - 11, - the movement in the perception the urban structure is capacious. Its scene is changeable and it depends on the type, speed and direction of the movement in it. We distinguish: - macro-dimension complex of spaces with the dynamically changing contour of material grouping; is perceived at speeds of km/h, 88

89 - micro-dimension detail perception of the space and its composition at speeds of 3-5 km/h. Fig The scheme of relationship among primary aesthetic and distributed information (Tnkus, 1983) 12.3 Compositional principles of an urban work of art The urban space is formed by relationships among: - the elements, - the space and observer. The urban space consists of two inseparable elements, namely: - space limitation, - spatial field (territory on which the limitation takes place). The spatial structure is primarily realized by two inseparable processes: - creation of the form - terraced composition (leading, braking, draining away...), - group composition (direction, opennesss, freedom...), - solitaire composition. - classification of the form - volumes and surfaces, Formation of substantially-spatial structure: - wider compositional connections - countryside (a mutual intersection is ideal), - narrower compositional connections - separated substantial base is classified into: - macro-relations - compositional centre, sub-centres and skeleton - micro-relations - space and substances. 89

90 Fig The analysis of spatial pictures and sequence of perceiving the picture of town (Tnkus, 1983) 90