PDHengineer.com Course C-8015

Transcription

1 PDHengineer.com Course C-8015 Vacuum Sewers - Design and Installation Guidelines To receive credit for this course This document is the course text. You may review this material at your leisure either before or after you purchase the course. To purchase this course, click on the course overview page: or type the link into your browser. Next, click on the Take Quiz button at the bottom of the course overview page. If you already have an account, log in to purchase the course. If you do not have a PDHengineer.com account, click the New User Sign Up link to create your account. After logging in and purchasing the course, you can take the online quiz immediately or you can wait until another day if you have not yet reviewed the course text. When you complete the online quiz, your score will automatically be calculated. If you receive a passing score, you may instantly download your certificate of completion. If you do not pass on your first try, you can retake the quiz as many times as needed by simply logging into your PDHengineer.com account and clicking on the link Courses Purchased But Not Completed. If you have any questions, please call us toll-free at PDHengineer.com 5870 Highway 6 North, Suite 310 Houston, TX Toll Free: administrator@pdhengineer.com

2 Vacuum Sewers Design and Installation Guidelines PDHengineer Course No. C-8015 Portions of this course use material excerpted from Alternative Sewer Systems, 2 nd ed.; Manual of Practice No- FD-12. Reprinted with permission from Alternative Sewer Systems, 2 nd ed.; Manual of Practice No. FD- 12. Copyright 2007 Water Environment Federation: Alexandria, Virginia. Page 1

3 I. INTRODUCTION From the time the very first public sewer system was constructed until the 1960 s, a conventional gravity system was the only choice US engineers had when considering a public sewer collection system. This changed about 40 years ago when the USEPA challenged the industry to developed alternative collection by providing special funding for such endeavors. One of the alternative collection systems is vacuum sewers. At one time, vacuum sewers were regarded as new and only to be used as a system of last resort. Improvements in the technology later led to acceptance as alternative sewers, but still only to be used when significant savings would result. Now, vacuum sewers have become an acceptable alternative in the proper application and are providing efficient and reliable sewer service to communities all around the world. However, proper design is of utmost importance for these systems to perform efficiently. This course is Part II of a three part series on vacuum sewers and will focus on detailed design and installation guidelines for vacuum sewer systems. Part I discusses the basics of vacuum sewer technology by providing a broad overview of the technology while Part III focuses on the Operation & Maintenance and System Management aspects related to vacuum sewers. II. HOW IT WORKS A. Theory of Operation Vacuum sewerage is a mechanized system of wastewater transport. Unlike gravity flow, vacuum sewers use differential air pressure to move the sewage. A central source of power to operate vacuum pumps is required to maintain vacuum (negative pressure) on the collection system. The system requires a normally closed vacuum/gravity interface valve at each entry point to seal the lines so that vacuum can be maintained. These valves, located in valve pits, open when a predetermined amount of sewage accumulates in collecting sumps. The resulting differential pressure between atmosphere and vacuum becomes the driving force that propels the sewage towards the vacuum station. B. The process from the house to the vacuum station Figure 1 and the following discussion describe the vacuum sewer process of the wastewater s travel from the house to the vacuum station. A more detailed description of the major system components is found later in this course. Page 2

4 Figure 1 How it Works (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 3

5 House to valve pit As far as the homeowner is concerned, connecting to a vacuum system is similar to connecting to any other sewer system. Sewage flows by gravity away from the house through a small diameter PVC pipe to the point of connection of the public sewer system (Figure 2). In this case, the point of connection is the valve pit. Figure 2 House / Pit / Main Relationship (Courtesy AIRVAC) In the valve pit Vacuum created by vacuum pumps located at the vacuum station is transferred through the vacuum mains and to the valve pit. The valve pit is where the interface between gravity and vacuum occurs. Housed in the top chamber of the valve pit is an interface valve. This valve is normally closed in order to seal the vacuum mains. This ensures that vacuum is maintained on the piping network at all times. The lower chamber of the valve pit is a sump that receives the sewage from the house. When 10 gallons of sewage accumulates in the sump, the interface valve automatically opens. This is done without any electrical power being required. The valve opens and in 3-4 seconds, the contents of the sump are evacuated. The valve stays open for another 2 or 3 seconds to allow for atmospheric air to enter the system. This air comes from the air-intake located by the house. Page 4

6 In the vacuum mains The resulting pressure differential between the positive pressure of atmosphere air and the negative pressure in the vacuum main becomes the driving force that propels the sewage towards the vacuum station. The pressure differential that exists at the normal operating vacuum levels provides the energy to propel the sewage at velocities of fps. When the sewage enter the vacuum main it travels as far as its initial energy allows, until frictional forces cause it to come to rest. As other valves in the piping network open, additional slugs of sewage and air enter the system. Each subsequent energy input continues to move the sewage toward the vacuum station. Many view the vacuum pipeline as a vacuum-assisted gravity sewer. Like gravity sewers, vacuum sewers are installed with a positive slope toward the vacuum station. When vacuum mains start to become deep, a lift is used to return the main to a more acceptable depth. It is at these lifts that vacuum assists the sewage on its travel toward the vacuum station. The lifts are part of the saw-tooth configuration of the vacuum mains, which is a key feature of a vacuum system. The saw-tooth profile is used to keep an open passageway on the top of the piping network, thereby preventing the pipe from becoming sealed. By doing this, air flows above the liquid, and the vacuum that is created at the vacuum station can be transferred to every valve pit. This ensures that the maximum pressure differential, and hence, maximum energy, can be obtained at each valve pit. At the vacuum station Eventually the sewage reaches the vacuum station. The vacuum station has 3 major components: the collection tank, the vacuum pumps and the sewage pumps (Figure 3). The vacuum pumps and the vacuum mains are connected to the top part of the collection tank. This part of the tank is kept open so that the in. mercury vacuum that is created by the vacuum pumps can be transferred to the vacuum mains and ultimately to the valve pits. Page 5

7 The vacuum pumps do not run continually, but rather in cycles. They run for a short period, usually 3 to 5 minutes, in order to establish the high level of 20-in. of mercury vacuum. When this level is achieved, they turn off. As valves throughout the system open and admit atmospheric air, vacuum levels gradually drop. When the vacuum level reaches 16-in. of mercury vacuum, the vacuum pumps come on again and run to re-establish the 20- in. of mercury vacuum. Sewage from the vacuum mains enters the collection tank and accumulates in the bottom part of the tank. When enough accumulates, the sewage pumps come on and pump the sewage out of the collection tank through a force main to the ultimate point of disposal. Figure 3 Components of a Typical Vacuum Station (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 6

8 III. SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS This section provides a general overview pertaining to the design of the various components of a vacuum system. The reader is referred to the 2005 version of AIRVAC s Design Manual 1 for additional and more detailed design information. A. Hydraulics All of the major vacuum system components are sized according to peak flow, expressed in gallons per minute (gpm). Peak flow rates are calculated by applying a peaking factor to an average daily flow rate. Design flows are maximum flow rates expected to occur once or twice per day, and are used to size the vacuum sewer mains and the various vacuum station components. Instantaneous flow rates in excess of design flows can occur under certain situations. Average Daily Flow (Qave) Based on the current Ten State Standards, sewage flow rates shall be based on one of the following: 1. Documented wastewater flow for the area being served. Water use records are typically used for this purpose gallons per person per day combined with home population densities specific to the service area. Most approval agencies will accept published U.S. Census Bureau home density for this criterion. Peaking Factor (PF) The peaking factor suggested by the design firm should be used, with one exception: the minimum peaking factor should never be less than 2.5. If not established by the consulting firm, regulatory agency or other applicable regulations, the peaking factor should be based on the following formula: 18 + POPULATION / POPULATION / 1000 Page 7

9 For example, if the service area has a population density of 1200, the peaking factor would be: = 3.75 Table 1 shows peak factors for various populations. Please note that these are not the exact figures that would be returned by the formula but rather are rounded figures for presentation purposes only. Table 1 Peak Factors Based on Ten State Standards formula Population Peak factor Peak Flow (Qmax) Applying the peak factor to the average daily flow rate and converting to gpm will yield the peak flow to be used as the basis of design. Q a /1440 x PF = Q max where: Q a PF Q max = Ave daily flow (gpd) = Peak factor = Peak Flow (gpm) Page 8

10 Example 1 If the design firm provides the average daily flow based on local water records and recommends a peaking factor, both should be used as the basis for design. Average daily flow rate: 75 gpcd Persons/house 3.0 # houses: 400 Peak factor: 3.5 Q a = 75 gpcd x 3.5 per/hse x 400 hses = 105,000 gpd PF = 3.50 Q max = 105,000 gpd/1440 x 3.50 = 255 gpm Example 2 If the design firm does not suggest average daily flow rates and peaking factors, then the Ten State Standards should be used for both. Average daily flow rate: 100 gpcd Population (3.0 x 400): 1200 Peak factor 3.75 Q a = 100 gpcd x 1200 persons = 120,000 gpd PF = 3.75 Q max = 120,000 gpd/1440 x 3.75 = 313 gpm Infiltration The vacuum system is a sealed system that eliminates ground water infiltration from the piping network and the interface valve pits. However, ground water can enter the system as a result of leaking house plumbing or as a result of building roof drains being connected to the plumbing system. While vacuum systems have some inherent reserve capacity, significant amounts of homeowner Infiltration & Inflow (I&I) can result is severe system operating problems. For this reason, it is recommended that designers consider methods of eliminating ground water from plumbing systems during the design phase of a project rather than adding a homeowner infiltration component to the design flow. Page 9

11 Velocity Tangential liquid velocities in the typical vacuum sewer are fps, obviously well above the minimum required for self-cleaning. The high transport velocities suggest that the probability of blockages occurring is remote. Vacuum transport & Air/Liquid ratio s The system designer needs an understanding of the vacuum transport process. With the saw-tooth profile design concept (see box below), when no vacuum valves are operating, no sewage transport takes place. All sewage remaining in the sewers will lie in the low spots and minimal vacuum loss is experienced throughout the system when this condition exists. Vacuum systems are designed to operate on two-phase (air/liquid) flows with the air being admitted for a time period twice that of the liquid. Open time of the AIRVAC valve is adjustable; hence, various air to liquid (A/L) ratios are attainable. The ability of the vacuum main to quickly recover to the same level of vacuum that existed prior to the cycle, commonly referred to as vacuum recovery, is very important in vacuum sewer design. Vacuum recovery is a function of line length, pipe diameter, number of connections, and the amount of lift in the system. THE SAWTOOTH PROFILE DESIGN CONCEPT The sawtooth profile design assumes that an open passage of air between the vacuum station and the interface valves is maintained throughout the piping network, providing the maximum differential pressure at the interface valves to insure maximum energy input to the vacuum mains. When the liquid comes to rest at the base of various lifts, it does not come in contact with the crown of the pipe and therefore does not seal the pipe. Should the lift be sealed for any reason, liquid is suspended on the downstream side of the lift and an associated vacuum loss is incurred. The AIRVAC design philosophy includes an accounting of all lifts for all flow paths within a system and the associated potential vacuum loss incurred. The static loss limit assures that sufficient vacuum will be available for valve operation in the event of a system upset such as 100% lift saturation. (AIRVAC, 2005) Page 10

12 The AIRVAC 3-inch valve is rated for 30 gpm, assuming sufficient vacuum levels exist at the valve location. This capacity is achieved when the valve cycles 3 times in a minute, with each cycle discharging 10 gallons. The length of one complete valve cycle is about 6-8 seconds, consisting of 2-3 seconds for the liquid, followed by 4-5 seconds of air. During this time, vacuum levels at the valve location temporarily drop as energy is used to admit the sewage into the main line. The valve then rests before the next cycle begins, which occurs when another 10 gallons accumulates in the sump. Vacuum recovery occurs during the valve-closed time as the vacuum level in the main is restored. It is very important to note that the 30 gpm rated capacity of the valve is not to be confused with the recommended design capacity of the valve pit (see Table 2). TABLE 2 Recommended Maximum Design Flow Rates For Valve Pits Pit Type Recommended Peak Flow (gpm) Maximum * Peak Flow (gpm) Standard valve pit gpm 3 gpm Single Buffer Tank gpm 30 gpm Dual Buffer Tank gpm 60 gpm Consult Manufacturer > 30.0 gpm > 60 gpm * Depending on static and friction loss, the overall amount of peak flow entering the system through buffer tanks and the exact location of the buffer tank, it may be possible to size a particular valve pit or buffer tank with the upper limits shown in this column. Consult the manufacturer for guidance. When vacuum levels decrease, there is a corresponding decrease in the valve capacity. This is due to the lower pressure differential that exist which results in less available energy and hence slower evacuation times. A low vacuum condition can occur when a larger than usual amount of flow enters the main, followed by a relatively small amount of air, resulting in a low air-to-liquid ratio. This could occur, for example, at a buffer tank where high discharge rates are common and where repeated firing of the valve over short periods of time may not allow sufficient vacuum recovery. The net result would be progressively decreasing pressure differentials and lower evacuation rates. For this reason, a system with nothing but high-flow inputs is not recommended (see box below). Page 11

13 SITUATION TO AVOID! USING VACUUM AS AN INTERCEPTOR SEWER The idea of collecting wastes by gravity and then using vacuum as an interceptor sewer is intriguing; however, this will not work very well, if at all. An insufficient air to liquid (A/L) ratio and subsequent waterlogging will result. Experience has shown that liquid transport in a vacuum system works best when there are many small energy inputs (i.e. valve pits) located at various points throughout the system. Conversely, the worst liquid transport characteristics occur where there is a single, large flow input located at the extreme end of a line. Bottom line: Vacuum sewers are intended to be a form of collection, not transmission. (AIRVAC, 2005) Odors and corrosion There are few odor problems reported with vacuum sewers. There are three contributing factors responsible for this: 1) the system is sealed, 2) air is introduced and not discharged and 3) detention times are short. The entire system, from the valve pit setting to the vacuum station, is sealed. The valve pit sump containing the sewage is tested for tightness both at the factory and in the field after installation. The piping system contains no air releases. The collection tank at the vacuum station, into which all of the sewer mains empty, is a vacuum-tight vessel. There is a large amount of air introduced into the system at each valve pit setting, which aids in the prevention of septic sewage through the violence imparted within the collector pipes. The typical valve cycle volume is about 10 gallons. This small volume results in frequent valve cycles. Once in the main, the sewage travels at velocities in excess of 15 fps. Also, the relative liquid to air volume in the main is quite low. These factors result in a short detention time, which also aids in the prevention of septic sewage. A possible exception to the above discussion on odors can occur when concrete buffer tanks are used. Unlike the fiberglass settings, these tanks are open from the sump to the top of the lid. Operating personnel must be careful of sewer gas buildup in these tanks when performing maintenance, although the volume of sewage present in the tank usually may not be large enough to produce dangerous levels of hydrogen sulfide. Also, these types of tanks typically are used to attenuate large flows, allowing the sewage more time to turn septic. Page 12

14 All of the system parts in contact with sewage are made of corrosion resistant materials. 1 As such; corrosion has not been a problem in vacuum sewers. The accumulation of grease is a cause for concern in a vacuum station just like it would be in a conventional lift station. Grease builds up on level controls and on the sides of the vacuum collection tank. Grease traps are typically required in applications such as restaurants to minimize these problems. Grease has not presented problems in vacuum sewer mains. When the sewage is evacuated from the sump, the suction generally pulls floatable grease into the vacuum mains. Since the sewage moves through the mains at high velocities, there is little opportunity for grease in the sewer to build up in the system to any level that could cause a blockage. Static and friction losses Vacuum systems are designed not to exceed 13 ft of static loss nor 5 ft of friction loss. This is a deviation from the early system design where the sum of the static and friction losses could not exceed 13 ft. These two losses are now considered independently. The theory behind the 13 ft static loss is simple. Normally, the vacuum pumps are set to operate at in. of Hg of vacuum. The minimum vacuum of 16-in. Hg results in a total available head loss of 18 ft; 5 ft of this head loss is required to operate the vacuum valve, thus leaving 13 ft available for sewage transport (Figure 4). Figure 4 Vacuum Lift Capability (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 13

15 Static losses are those incurred by using lifts, or vertical profile changes. Profile changes are accomplished by using two 45-degree fittings joined by a section of pipe. For efficient use of the energy available, profile changes should be as small as possible. Numerous lifts are recommended over one large lift (AIRVAC, 2005). Table 3 shows the recommended lift height for various pipe sizes. Table 3 Recommended Lift Height Pipe Diameter (in) Lift Height (ft) Static losses are calculated by subtracting the pipe diameter from the lift height (Figure 5). Figure 5 Static Loss Determination (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 14

16 Friction losses are only calculated for sewers that are laid on a downward slope between 0.20% and 2.0% and are cumulative for each flow path from the furthest valve on the line to the vacuum station. Friction losses in sewers installed at greater than 2.0% percent are ignored. Friction loss charts for SDR 21 PVC pipe and a 2:1 air/liquid ratio have been developed by AIRVAC and are contained in their Design Manual 1 (AIRVAC, 2005). Situations to avoid Vacuum sewers are a very reliable, cost-effective alternative when designed for the appropriate conditions. However, there are certain situations that should be avoided as they may result in less than desirable results. Examples of these are: Using vacuum as an interceptor sewer (see Page 12) Long distances with no connections (see Page 17) Over-use of buffer tanks (see Page 28) These situations are discussed in text boxes in the above referenced sections of this manual. Effects of water conservation Vacuum sewer systems have been used in areas that practice water conservation measures. There have been no specific studies done regarding water conservation and its effect on a vacuum system. However, to date, there have been no negative reports of poor performance due to water conservation from any vacuum system operators. The general thinking is a vacuum system can more easily handle a wastewater stream with less liquid than can a gravity system, which requires a certain amount of liquid to carry the solids. The major reason for this is the additional force, i.e., the pressure differential that assists the natural gravity flow. The best evidence of this can be seen in the cruise ship industry, where water conservation goes beyond the low-flush toilets used in residential situations. For many years, cruise ships have successfully used internal vacuum systems with vacuum toilets that use as little as 1 quart of water. Page 15

17 B. Mains and Service Lines The major components of the vacuum-piping network are defined below and are depicted in Figure 6. Main line: Branch line: Service lateral: Valve pit: Vacuum station: Larger diameter trunk lines that enter the vacuum station Smaller diameter lines that connect to the vacuum main 3 vacuum line that connects the valve pit to the vacuum main Point of connection for customer Heart of system where vacuum is produced and sewage is collected Figure 6 Major Components of a Vacuum System: collection piping (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 16

18 Geometry and Sizing The geometry of a vacuum sewer system is similar to that of a water distribution system. Rather than looped, however, it is normally designed in a tree pattern. The length of vacuum mains is generally governed by two factors. These are static lift and friction losses, which were previously discussed. Due to restraints placed upon each design by topography and sewage flows, it is impossible to give a definite maximum line length (length from vacuum station to line extremity). In perfectly flat terrain with no unusual subsurface obstacles present, a length of 10,000 ft can easily be achieved. With elevation to overcome, this length would become shorter. With positive elevation toward the vacuum station, this length could be longer. As an example, one operating system has a line that, from the vacuum station to the line extremity, exceeds 16,500 ft. in length. The use of Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) could result in significantly shorter lines, as the shallowest slopes that are currently attainable with HDD are 0.50% rather than the 0.20% normally used. See Pages 51 & 52 for a more detailed discussion on this subject. Another important consideration is the location of the valve pits along the vacuum main. Designers should avoid layouts that result in long stretches with no connections. Lack of valve pits, which act as energy inputs to the system, could have a detrimental effect on system hydraulics (see box below). SITUATION TO AVOID! LONG DISTANCES WITH NO CONNECTIONS Occasionally an engineer will face a situation where there is a long pipe run with no house connections. This is a situation to avoid, as poor liquid transport characteristics could result. Movement of liquid within the vacuum main depends on differential pressure. The differential is created when a vacuum valve opens and allows atmospheric air to enter a vacuum main that is under a negative pressure. The only place this can happen is where a vacuum valve exists. Although most view the valve pit as simply a connection point for the customer, the designer views this as an energy input location. The more energy inputs along a given vacuum main, the better the system operates. Conversely, as fewer energy inputs exist, the transport characteristics become poorer. (AIRVAC, 2005) Page 17

19 New developments, where many lots may initially be vacant, require special consideration. For these cases, it is suggested that the valve pit, less the valve, be installed to each lot at the same time the vacuum mains are installed. Should they be needed, one or more Electronic Air Admission Control (EAAC) valves could be installed at strategic pit locations along with a timer (see discussion on EAAC on page 36) to actuate the valve to impart the necessary air and energy to the piping network. There are three (3) major items for the designer to consider when laying out a vacuum system: Multiple service zones: By locating the vacuum station centrally, it is possible for multiple vacuum mains to enter the station, which effectively divides the service area into zones. This results in operational flexibility as well as service reliability. With multiple service zones, the operator can respond to system problems, such as low station vacuum, by analyzing the collection system on a zone by zone basis to see which zone has the problem. The problem zone can then be isolated from the rest of the system so that normal service is possible in the unaffected zones while the problem is identified and solved. Minimize pipe sizes: By dividing the service area into zones, the total peak flow to the station is also spread out among the various zones, making it possible to minimize the pipe sizes. Minimize static loss: Static loss is generally limited to 13 ft. Items that result in static loss are increased line length, elevation differences, utility conflicts and the relationship of the valve pit location to the vacuum main (see box below). Vacuum sewer design rules have been developed largely as a result of studying operating systems. Important design parameters such as minimum distance between lifts, minimum slopes, slopes between lifts, etc. are contained in AIRVAC s 2005 Design Manual 1. Page 18

20 MINIMIZING STATIC LOSS Static loss is generally limited to 13 feet. Items that result in static loss are: Line length: In perfectly flat ground, lifts are made to keep the vacuum main at the same invert level. Every lift has an associated loss depending on the lift height and pipe diameter. By locating the vacuum station centrally, the length of longest line can be kept to a minimum, resulting in the lowest possible vacuum loss due to lifts. Elevation differences: To overcome elevation differences will also require lifts. While the amount of lift needed to overcome a given elevation difference depends on the pipe sizes, the actual lift height, etc., in general the lift loss is similar to the actual elevation overcome. Utility conflicts/canal crossings: To cross under utilities and then return the pipe to minimum depth requires lift. Crossing over the utility, if possible, will minimize or even totally eliminate lift. Relationship of valve pit to main: There are situations where the elevation of a house is lower that the road elevation. In this case the valve pit will have to be located such that gravity flow from the house is possible. This usually will result in lift in the service line between the valve pit and the vacuum main. Tip: A key to minimizing vacuum loss is to avoid combinations of the above. (AIRVAC, 2005) Based on in-house hydraulic testing and an adaptation of the Hazen-Williams equation, AIRVAC developed a table showing the recommended maximum flow rates as well as the absolute maximum flow rate for a given pipe size. Table 4 shows these recommendations. Table 4 Recommended & Absolute Maximum Flow Rates for Various Pipe Sizes Pipe Diameter (in) Recommended Maximum Flow Rate (gpm) Absolute Maximum Flow Rate (gpm) Page 19

21 Line size changes are made when the cumulative flow exceeds the maximum recommended design flow for a given line size. As a practical matter, most designers will make this transition at a logical geographic location such as a street intersection. The values in Table 4 should be used for planning purposes or as a starting point for the detailed design. In the latter case, estimated site-specific flow inputs along with the friction tables should be used in the hydraulic calculations. A correctly sized line will yield a relatively small friction loss. If the next larger pipe size significantly reduces friction loss, the line was originally undersized. The maximum number of houses served by a given line size is shown on Table 5, which assumes the peak design flow for 1 house is 0.50 gpm. Table 5 Maximum Number of Houses Served for Various Pipe Sizes (based on Rec d Maximum Flow using a peak design flow of 0.50 gpm/house) Pipe Diameter (in) Maximum Number of Homes Served Routing An advantage to the use of vacuum sewers is that the small diameter PVC pipe used is flexible and can be easily routed horizontally around obstacles. The feature allows vacuum sewers to follow a winding path as necessary. In most cases, vacuum sewer mains are located outside of and adjacent to the edge of pavement and approximately parallel to the road or street, which reduces the expenses of pavement repair and traffic control. In areas subject to unusual erosion, the preferred location is often within the paved area. Some municipalities also favor installation within the paved area since subsequent excavation is less likely and more controlled (via permit application only), and therefore a location more protected from damage. However, community disruption potential during construction and maintenance for this approach increases substantially. Page 20

22 With two or more houses sharing one valve pit, overall system construction costs can be significantly reduced, resulting in major cost advantage. In some circumstances, however, this approach may require the main line to be located in private property, typically in the back yard. There are two disadvantages to this type of routing. First, it requires permanent easements from one of the property owners, which may be difficult to obtain. Second, experience has shown that multiple house hookups can be a source of neighborhood friction unless the pit is located on public property. The designer should carefully consider the tradeoff of reduced costs to the social issues prior to making the final routing decision. Vacuum sewers are normally buried with a cover of 36 inches. Frost penetration depths usually dictate the depth of burial in colder climates. In the northern U.S., they are often placed at a depth of 4-5 ft. Even though line freezing is a concern with most engineers, it is not a problem with vacuum mains since retention time in small diameter lines is relatively short and turbulence is inherent. The separation of vacuum sewers from water mains often requires the vacuum sewer be buried deeper than would be required for other reasons. Horizontal and vertical separation requirements are dictated by State Agencies and vary from state to state. At least one state, Florida, has allowed for smaller separation of vacuum and water lines with the idea that, if both the vacuum main were broken, air and water would be pulled into the vacuum sewer rather than raw sewage leaking out. Profiles of the mains should always be shown on the plans. Slopes, line sizes and lengths, culvert and utility crossings, inverts, and surface replacements are typically shown on the profiles. Culvert and utility crossings often dictate numerous variations in the depth of burial of vacuum sewer mains, with many resulting sags and summits in the pipeline profile. Unlike pressure mains, where air accumulates at a summit requiring an air release valve, high points in the profile do not affect vacuum sewers. The sags; however, do add lift to the system. If not designed and constructed properly, sags may trap sewage at low flow periods blocking off the vacuum in the low part of the sewer. TECHNOLOGY IMPROVEMENT O-RING GASKET PIPE FOR VACUUM USE Early vacuum systems were constructed using solvent welded joints. Several factors relating to gluing of pipe, including human error, led to problems with leaking joints. In the mid-1980 s most designers began using standard O-ring PVC pipe that is equipped with a special double-lipped gasket. The number of main line leaks has deceased drastically as a result. Experience has proven this pipe to be economical to install, reliable to operate and easy to repair. Page 21

23 Pipe Materials PVC thermoplastic pipe, typically Class 200, SDR 21 PVC, is normally used for vacuum sewers. In some installations, MDPE, HDPE and ABS have been successfully used. In certain cases, DIP has also been used, assuming the joints have been tested and found suitable for vacuum service. To reduce expansionand-contraction-induced stresses, flexible elastomeric joint pipe is preferred. If solvent-welded joint pipe is used, the pipe manufacturer s recommendations for installation regarding temperature considerations should be followed. Service Laterals (Valve pit to vacuum main) Vacuum service laterals connect the vacuum main to the valve pit. Service laterals typically are 3-in. in diameter. As with the vacuum sewer mains, Class 200, SDR 21 PVC pipe typically is used for the service laterals with rubber O-ring fittings preferred. Service laterals should be located distant from potable water lines to reduce the possibility of cross contamination. If possible, they should also be distant from other buried utilities to reduce the possibility of damage caused by subsequent excavations for maintenance or repair of those utilities. AIRVAC recommends all connections to the main be made "over the top" by using a vertical wye fitting and a long radius elbow (Figure 7). Due to the restraints placed upon the depth of the mainline sewers by the connecting service laterals entering "over the top," engineers should consider the minimum ground cover required on these connections at the design stage. The invert spacing can be reduced by rolling the wye fitting to a 45 degree angle. This method is acceptable, provided the invert of the connecting pipe is at least 2 inches above the crown of the main. Figure 7 Over the Top service lateral connection (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 22

24 C. Valve Pit Settings and Building Sewers The major components relating to the valve pit are defined below and are depicted in Figure 8 This integral valve pit arrangement is an improvement over the early side-by-side valve pit arrangement (see box below). Pit cone: Sump: Pit bottom: Vacuum valve: Suction line: Sensor line: Stub-out: Service lateral: Flotation collar: Valve pit cover: In-sump breather: upper chamber that houses the vacuum valve lower chamber that accepts sewage from the building sewer physical separation between sump & pit cone 3 interface valve (normally closed) 3 line used to evacuate the sump 2 line used to transfer rising sump pressure to valve controller Short piece of pipe that extends to customer s property 3 vacuum line that connects valve pit to the vacuum main Fiberglass collar to keep valve pit from floating Protective traffic rated lid for pit (not shown) Device that allows a small amount of atmospheric air from the sump to close the valve controller, while protecting it from unwanted water (not to be confused with the larger amount of air needed for sewage transport supplied by the air-intake). Page 23

25 TECHNOLOGY IMPROVEMENT INTEGRAL VALVE PIT Early (1970 s) valve pits had a side-by-side arrangement with rigid piping connecting the two chambers. Two problems occurred: 1) problems with differential settlement led to pipe breaks and ultimately to vacuum leaks and 2) the glued, rigid connecting piping frequently failed also causing vacuum leaks. The current top/bottom arrangement does not include this connecting piping. This eliminated contractor error on two fronts: compaction of the pits and gluing of the connecting pipe-fittings. (AIRVAC, 2005) Figure 8 Valve Pit setting major components (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 24

26 Valve Pits Figure 9 shows a pre-manufactured, fiberglass type of valve pit setting, which is by far the most common. This type of setting is composed of four main parts; the bottom chamber (sump), the top chamber (valve pit), the plate that separates the two chambers (pit bottom), and the lid. Wastes from the home are transmitted via the building sewer to the stub-out. The stub-out inlet enters the sump 18 inches above the bottom. Holes for the building sewers are field cut at the position directed by the engineer. Various valve pit arrangements are available to accommodate varying depths of service (5 feet to 10 feet). The shallower arrangements would be used in areas where high ground water or poor soils exist and depth of the building sewers is very shallow. Figure 9 Typical Fiberglass valve pit setting (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 25

27 Up to four separate building sewers can be connected to one sump, each at 90 degrees to one another. However, this is rarely done as property lines considerations and other factors may render this impractical. By far, the most common valve pit sharing arrangement is for two adjacent houses to share a single valve pit (AIRVAC, 2005) Some have attempted to reduce costs by having additional houses sharing a single valve pit. Experience has shown that, while this may appear to be viable on paper, many times it is not achievable during construction. And, even if it is, the perceived cost savings does not always materialize. Longer runs of gravity laterals are required which results in deeper valve pits needed to accommodate this. Also, the additional 2 or 3 ft of excavation of not just the pit, but the gravity laterals as well, may result in extensive dewatering. In certain cases, such as the existence of a cul-de-sac or when small lots with short front footage exists, it may be possible to serve 3 or even 4 houses with a single valve pit; however, all other design factors must be considered. Buffer tanks Buffer tanks are typically used for schools, apartments, nursing homes, and other large volume users. Their use should be limited to users where service at only one or two locations is possible (e.g.: a commercial user). They should not be used where individual valve pits could otherwise be employed (AIRVAC, 2005). Buffer tanks are designed with a small operating sump in the lower portion, with additional emergency storage available in the tank. These types of settings are typically constructed of 4-ft diameter concrete manhole sections, with the bottom section having a pre-poured bottom with an 18-in diameter sump (Fig 10). It is very important that all joints and connections be watertight to eliminate ground-water infiltration. Equally important is the need for a well-designed pipe support system, since these tanks are open from top to bottom. The support hardware should be of stainless steel and/or plastic. Considering the discussion on pages 9 &10, a lower evacuation rate of 15 gpm is recommended for buffer tank sizing. This lower rate assists proper vacuum recovery. Table 2 shows the recommended maximum design flows for buffer tanks. Page 26

28 Figure 10 Concrete Single Buffer Tank (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 27

29 SITUATION TO AVOID! OVERUSE OF BUFFER TANKS AIRVAC does not recommend using buffer tanks on a widespread basis. Much depends on the location of the buffer tank itself, the length of travel to the vacuum station, the amount of lift in the system, and how many other buffer tanks there are in close proximity. In general, the closer to the station, the less lift, and the fewer other buffer tanks that exist, the better chance there is of the system operating successfully. Because of the possibility of water-logging, the AIRVAC Design Manual limits the use of buffer tanks as follows: 1) No more than 25% of the total peak flow of the entire system shall enter through buffer tanks and 2) No more than 50% of the total peak flow of a single vacuum main (i.e. flow path) shall enter through buffer tanks. (AIRVAC, 2005) A dual buffer tank is similar to a single buffer tank, with the exception that it is larger to accommodate two vacuum valves (Figure 11). These tanks typically utilize 5-ft diameter manhole sections. Dual buffer tanks may also be used if the single buffer tank does not have the capacity for the large flows. AIRVAC recommends that a specific not to exceed percentage of the total peak flow be contributed to the vacuum mains from buffer tanks (AIRVAC, 2005) (see Situations to Avoid box). This design criterion was established to ensure that an adequate air-to-liquid ratio is maintained in any section of the vacuum mains, thereby preventing the mains from becoming water-logged and for the timely recovery of vacuum conditions throughout the system. The amount of flow entering via a buffer tank(s) at a single location is also important. This is dependent on the location of the buffer tank in the piping network. AIRVAC s Design Manual 1 provides some general guidelines regarding this. Page 28

30 Figure 11 Concrete Dual Buffer Tank (Courtesy AIRVAC) Page 29

31 Stub-outs Typically the valve pit setting will include a short piece of pipe extending from the sump to the property line. This short section is called a stub-out (see Figure 8). The stub-out is used to minimize the risk of damage to the fiberglass valve pit during homeowner connection to the system. Pressure rated Sch 40 or SDR 21 PVC pipe is recommended for the stub-out since this type of pipe has an outside diameter (OD) that matches the grommet provided in the sump opening. A tight fit at this joint prevents the entrance of I/I into the sump. Building Sewers The term building sewer refers to the gravity flow pipe extending from the house to the valve pit setting. The building sewer connects to the stub-out. In many cases, state or local authorities regulate installations of building sewers. The Uniform Plumbing Code is often referenced. For residential service, the building sewer should be 4-in and slope continuously downward at a rate of not less than 0.25-in/ft (2-percent grade). Line size for commercial users will depend on the amount of flow and local code requirements. Bends should be avoided in building sewers, and a cleanout used for each aggregate change in direction exceeding 57 degrees. If the building sewer piping network does not have a cleanout within it, one should be placed outside and close to the home. Some agencies prefer having a cleanout at the dividing line where agency maintenance begins. In most cases this would be at the end of the 6-ft stub-out pipe. Infiltration via leaking building sewers has been common, as has the connection of roof and yard drains (inflow). A quality inspection during homeowner connection is advised to determine if these situations exist. If so, steps should be taken to require their elimination prior to final homeowner connection. As was the case with the stub-out pipe, pressure rated Sch 40 or SDR 21 PVC pipe is also recommended for the building sewer. Should the air-intake be blocked and the vacuum valve fail in the open position at the same time, the building sewer could see the full system vacuum of 20-in. of Hg. Therefore, the existing building sewer may need to be replaced at most existing houses. AIRVAC s 2005 Design Manual 1 contains specific information regarding recommended pipe types for both the stub-out pipes as well as the building sewers. Page 30

32 Backwater valves Vacuum valves almost always fail in the open position. In this failure mode, the homeowner is not affected, as the contents of the sump will continue to be emptied as long as sufficient vacuum levels remain. It is rare that a vacuum valve fails in the closed position due to a physical defect or problems internal workings of the valve itself. It is possible, however, that the valve does not open because of insufficient vacuum. A broken or leaking vacuum main or some other system problem that results in a low vacuum condition could cause this. In this case, sewage backup into the home may occur. Some entities prefer the use of backwater valves on the building sewer in order to provide sewage backup protection, especially for houses that share a valve pit when the houses are at different elevations. For the typical normally closed type backwater valve, positioning is critical. If not installed between the house and the air intake pipe, the vacuum valve will not operate. The preferred type of backwater valve is one designed to be in the normally opened position. Location is not an issue for this type of valve and they have proven to have superior performance when used in a vacuum system. Air-intake An air-intake, consisting of 4-in PVC pipe, fittings and a screen (Figure 12), is required for each building sewer. Its purpose is to provide a sufficient amount of air to enter into the vacuum main via the building sewer and valve pit to act as the driving force behind the liquid that is evacuated from the sump. Since plumbing vents allow air out, while the air intake draws air in, the air intake is not considered to be a component of the customer s plumbing vent system. Most plumbing code enforcement entities require the air-intake to be located against a permanent structure, such as the house or a wall. Because of the variation in local code enforcement agencies, the design engineer and governing utility should be aware of the plumbing code requirements and inform the homeowner prior to the installation of the required sewer connection. The house vent may not be used in place of an air intake. While it may provide the necessary air, its location could result in the house plumbing traps being evacuated during a valve cycle (AIRVAC, 2005). For this reason, the air-intake must be located downstream of the last house plumbing trap. Also, the use of a check valve within the air-intake itself is not recommended as this too will result in problems with the traps inside the house. Page 31

33 Figure 12 Air-intake (Courtesy AIRVAC) Appurtenances The designer should perform buoyancy calculations to see if anti-floatation collars are needed to prevent the valve pit from floating. Until recently, antiflotation collars consisted of concrete rings. These concrete rings required care be taken during the valve pit installation as poor bedding and backfill could lead to differential settlement around the valve pit causing the heavy concrete collars to shift. The result can be damaged valve pits and/or broken vacuum lines near the valve pit. Recent systems have used fiberglass anti-flotation collar (see Figure 8) that fit around the tapered valve pit and rely on soil burden to keep the pit from floating. The fiberglass collars not only eliminate the settlement problem, but are much less labor intensive to install than the concrete collars. Safety is also a concern with the old style concrete rings. Concrete collars have metal lifting rings used during the initial placement of the collar. There have been reports of these lifting rings later failing after being exposed to corrosive underground conditions. Not only can the valve pit be easily damaged should the collars later be removed, but the workers are also vulnerable to injury during this process. Again, the lightweight fiberglass collars eliminate this problem. Page 32

34 D. Vacuum Valves There are 2 different types of vacuum valves: the piston-type and the diaphragm-type. While both types are used in Europe and other countries, virtually all U.S. installations use the piston-type manufactured by AIRVAC. For that reason, the discussion that follows will concentrate on the piston-type valve. Vacuum Valve The AIRVAC valve is vacuum operated on opening and spring assisted on closing. System vacuum ensures positive valve seating. The valves have a 3-in full-port opening, are made of glass filled polypropylene and have stainless steel shafts, Delrin bearings and elastomer seals (AIRVAC, 2005). All materials of the valve are chemically resistant to normal domestic sewage constituents and gases. Vacuum sewer design follows the industry standard that advocates the ability to pass a 3 solid through any part of a sewage collection system. Some plumbing codes have provisions that to prohibit restrictions less than 3 downstream of any toilet. For these reasons, a minimum valve size of 3 is recommended. The driving force in a vacuum system is the pressure differential that exists between atmosphere and vacuum in the system. This differential occurs when the valve opens. As a result, the only place to impart energy in a vacuum system is at the valve itself. Since vacuum sewers have a limited amount of energy available, any loss through the valve further depletes this energy resulting in less available for transport within the pipeline. This is especially critical when one considers that this loss occurs at each valve and during each valve cycle. For this reason, it is important to use a vacuum valve with a high C v (flow coefficient) factor and hence, a low head loss through the valve. The C v factor is the flow rate in gallons per minute (gpm) which would yield a head loss of 1 psi. Controller/sensor The controller/sensor is the key component of the vacuum valve. The device relies on three forces for its operation: pressure, vacuum, and atmosphere. As the sewage level rises in the sump, it compresses air in the sensor tube. This pressure initiates the opening of the valve by overcoming spring tension in the controller and activates a 3-way valve. Once opened, the three-way valve allows the controller/sensor to take the vacuum from the downstream side of the valve and apply it to the actuator chamber to fully open the valve. The controller/sensor is capable of maintaining the valve fully open for a fixed period of time, which is adjustable over a range of 3 to 10 seconds. After the preset time period has elapsed, atmospheric air is admitted to the actuator chamber permitting spring assisted closing of the valve (AIRVAC, 2005). Page 33