Future City. Volume 8

Transcription

1 Future City Volume 8 Advisory Board Jack Ahern, University of Massachusetts, Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, Amherst, MA, USA John Bolte, Oregon State University, Biological & Ecological Engineering Department, Corvallis, OR, USA Richard Dawson, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, School of Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Patrick Devine-Wright, University of Manchester, School of Environment and Development, Manchester School of Architecture, Manchester, UK Almo Farina, University of Urbino, Institute of Biomathematics, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Urbino, Italy Raymond James Green, University of Melbourne, Faculty of Architecture, Building & Planning, Parkville, VIC, Australia Glenn R. Guntenspergen, National Resources Research Institute, US Geological Survey, Duluth, MN, USA Dagmar Haase, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH UFZ, Department of Computational Landscape Ecology, Leipzig, Germany Michael Jenks, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford Institute of Sustainable Development, Department of Architecture, Oxford, UK Cecil Konijnendijk van den Bosch, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, Planning and Management, Alnarp, Sweden Joan Iverson Nassauer, University of Michigan, School of Natural Resources and Environment, Landscape Ecology, Perception and Design Lab, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Stephan Pauleit, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Chair for Strategic Landscape Planning and Management, Freising, Germany Steward T.A. Pickett, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY, USA Robert Vale, Victoria University of Wellington, School of Architecture and Design, Wellington, New Zealand Ken Yeang, Llewelyn Davies Yeang, London, UK Makoto Yokohari, University of Tokyo, Graduate School of Sciences, Institute of Environmental Studies, Department of Natural Environment, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan

2 Future City Description As of 2008, for the first time in human history, half of the world s population now live in cities. And with concerns about issues such as climate change, energy supply and environmental health receiving increasing political attention, interest in the sustainable development of our future cities has grown dramatically. Yet despite a wealth of literature on green architecture, evidence-based design and sustainable planning, only a fraction of the current literature successfully integrates the necessary theory and practice from across the full range of relevant disciplines. Springer s Future City series combines expertise from designers, and from natural and social scientists, to discuss the wide range of issues facing the architects, planners, developers and inhabitants of the world s future cities. Its aim is to encourage the integration of ecological theory into the aesthetic, social and practical realities of contemporary urban development. More information about this series at

3 Joe R. McBride The World s Urban Forests History, Composition, Design, Function and Management

4 Joe R. McBride Landscape Architecture and Environmental University of California Landscape Architecture and Environmental Berkeley, CA, USA ISSN Future City ISBN DOI / ISSN (electronic) ISBN (ebook) Library of Congress Control Number: Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

5 Preface Pliny the Elder, in the preface to his Natural History, described his book as a study of the nature of things. My ambition, in this natural history of the world s urban forest, is more limited; I intend only to address the nature of trees occurring in urban areas. My purpose is to examine the history, composition, design, function, and management of urban forests in 33 of the world s cities. Of particular interest in this examination is the question of the relationship of urban forest history, composition, design, and management to the large geographic regions, known as biomes, in which these cities occur. An initial assumption to be tested is the degree to which the climates and arboreal floras of the biomes dictate the characteristics of local urban forests. History, no doubt, has also played a role in shaping the characteristics of present-day urban forests. Therefore, the book will also investigate the influence of culture and world history on the urban forest. The meaning of the term urban forest varies throughout the world. In Germany, it refers to a legally designated forest near the margin of a city that is managed specifically for the use of the people living in the city. In Sweden, the term applies to forests in urban areas where the understory vegetation is not managed. In the United States, the term urban forest is used to encompass all trees growing in an urban area, regardless of how they are managed. This definition I found the most encompassing and useful in the study of trees in urban areas around the world. The history of trees in urban areas is not limited to the 33 cities that were studied for this book. Many precedents for the use of trees in cities were developed in other cities and even outside of the boundaries of urban areas. For example, commonly used planting patterns, such as the allee, were developed in Renaissance gardens before they were adopted in urban areas. The historical analysis presented in this book depended primarily on library sources. These sources were augmented by examining paintings, maps, and other representations of trees in museums in many of the cities studied. In some cities, it was possible to visit historic boulevards and parks to experience historically significant designs that were innovations in their time. Street and boulevard trees as well as trees in parks, plazas, gardens, cemeteries, greenbelts, and certain special urban environments (e.g., urban land adjacent to v

6 vi Preface water edges, traffic circles, rooftop gardens, trees on walls) were examined to gather information for this book. The collected data are presented in tables illustrating the composition of urban forest in the 33 cities studied. Simple averages and calculations of frequency of occurrence are used to give a general picture of the importance of different species in various urban environments. A comparative analysis of planting designs, illustrated with cross-section diagrams and sketch maps, is used to contrast designs used in different cities. Information on the management of the world s urban forests came from interviews in each city. Urban foresters, arborists, landscape architects, city planners, park managers, and local citizens were asked about issues concerning the management of trees. Although each city had its special management issues, some issues such as pest management and funding were common to most of the cities studied. This book brings together an analysis of the world s urban forests from the perspective of the ecological influence of the biomes and cultural and historical factors influencing the development of cities. Strong correlations can be drawn between the characteristics of certain biomes and the composition, design, and management of urban forest in those biomes. But this relationship is not necessarily universal. Culture and historical development of cities have played more dominant roles in the development of urban forests in many of the world s biomes. The future of the world s urban forests is treated in a final chapter that identifies contrasting trends. Some of these trends will enhance and enrich urban forests, while others are leading to a decline in tree species diversity and canopy cover in many of the world s cities. Preparing this book involved flying many thousands of miles to reach the dispersed cities, walking hundreds of miles of streets to survey urban forest conditions, conversing with dozens of local tree experts, and spending uncounted hours writing late into the night. The effort has rewarded me by broadening my perspective on the urban forest and giving me a greater appreciation for the variety of ways trees can be used in urban areas. And I believe, as did Pliny, those sleepless nights spent in writing have added hours to my life. He said in justification of the late hours spent in writing his Natural History to be awake is to be alive. Berkeley, CA, USA Joe R. McBride

7 Acknowledgments This book would not have been possible without the help of graduate students, colleagues, and my wife, Deborah McBride, who accompanied me to many of the cities included in this book. Their assistance in making travel arrangements, contacts with local urban forestry officials, and data collection and their skills, as translators of a variety of languages, were invaluable. In particular, I wish to thank the following individuals for their assistance in the cities indicated: Ahmad Mossadegh (University of Tehran), Tehran and Dubai; Zemin Wu (Anhui Agricultural University), Beijing; Jan Falck (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences); Sheauchi Cheng (US Department of Agriculture), Tokyo; Vlad Douhovnikoff (Bowdoin College), Murmansk and Moscow; Scot Medbury (Brooklyn Botanic Garden), Moscow; Jun Yang (Beijing Forestry University), Beijing; Danai Thaitakoo (Chulalongkorn University), Bangkok; C. Y. Jim (University of Hong Kong), Hong Kong; and Trausti Valsson (University of Iceland), Reykjavik. Numerous local officials in urban forestry were also most helpful in providing information about trees and their management in the various cities. Their generosity in taking time to meet with me and answer my questions is most appreciated. I am also indebted to my friend Dick Berman who provided valuable counsel throughout the process of producing this book and specific assistance in the use of various types of computer software. Support for the research necessary for this book was provided by the Farrand Fund for Research in Landscape Architecture and the Pacific Rim Research Program of the University of California. A special word of gratitude is due to Deborah McBride who accompanied to many of the cities and assisted in a variety of ways. Without her confidence in the value of the project and her encouragement, this work would not have been completed. Finally, this book would not have been possible without the continued encouragement of Jim Clark of HortScience. vii

8 Contents 1 Introduction Methods Biomes, Human Settlement, and the Selection of Cities Biomes Historical Background Human Settlement in the World s Biomes History Introduction Early Human Settlements Large Urban Areas in Mexico at the Time of the Spanish Conquest Urban Trees in Ancient Egypt Trees in the Ancient Cities of Persia, Greece, and Rome The Middle Ages in Europe The Renaissance The Enlightenment The Nineteenth Century The Twentieth Century Composition Overall Composition of the Urban Forest Street and Boulevard Trees Traffic Barriers Parks Greenbelts Waste Areas Water s Edge Cemeteries Freeways Rooftop Gardens ix

9 x Contents 6 Design Introduction Trees Along Streets and Boulevards New Delhi Stockholm Murmansk Seattle Vancouver Tehran Other Cites Traffic Barriers Small Parks Large Parks Housing Areas Brasilia Stockholm Urban Greenbelts Water s Edge Cemeteries Freeways Rooftop Gardens Function Use of Trees for Air Pollution Reduction Landslide Stabilization Urban Orchards Community Gardens Storm Water Retention Brownfield Reclamation Forest Products Management Introduction Administrative Approaches Urban Forest Management Problems Specific Management Activities Alternative Approaches to Urban Forest Management Urban Forests, Biomes and History Species Composition Design Function Management Conclusions The Future of the Urban Forest Literature Cited