CONCERNS ON ESTIMATING HEAT RELEASE RATE OF DESIGN FIRES IN FIRE ENGINEERING APPROACH

Transcription

1 , Volume 11, Number 1, p.11-19, 01 CONCERNS ON ESTIMATING HEAT RELEASE RATE OF DESIGN FIRES IN FIRE ENGINEERING APPROACH W.K. Chow Researh Cenre for Fire Enineerin, Deparmen of Buildin Servies Enineerin The Hon Kon Polyehni Universiy, Hon Kon, China (Reeived May 01; Aeped 1 June 01) ABSTRACT A number of bi buildin fires broke ou in Hon Kon in he pas few years. Espeially afer he rea fire on Fa Yuen Sree, more aenion should be paid o fire safey in onsruion projes, whih o hrouh Fire Enineerin Approah (FEA) or performane-based desin (PBD). The hea release rae of a desin fire is he mos imporan parameer in hazard assessmen o deermine he fire safey provisions for buildins whih have diffiulies o omply wih he fire ode. However, a very low desin fire less han 5 MW is usually assumed in many FEA/PBD projes. This is assumed even in lare rowded spaes, suh as publi ranspor erminals and shoppin malls. Aordin o he surveys done by differen researh roups in he pas 5 years, loal buildins usually sore muh more ombusibles, an amoun ha exeeds he upper limi of 1135 MJm - imposed by he odes. This inluded faory buildins, reail shops, karaokes, hiher eduaion insiues, residenial buildins and shoppin malls. The hea release rae resuled from iniin he ombusibles would be muh hiher han he value assumed in he FEA/PBD repor. A pos-flashover fire due o whaever reason would ive even hiher hea release rae. There are even no sprinklers in many publi plaes suh as rowded subway saions. If a hue fire broke ou in suh plaes, he diffiul ask of onrollin fire would be lef o firemen. Daa on hea release rae for loal ombusible produs is no ye available. In mos of he FEA/PBD projes, esimaions were alulaed under low radiaive hea flux, whih are very rude assumpions. Mos of hese alulaions are no suppored by full-sale burnin ess, and some alulaions were even wron in akin averae hea release rae as he peak hea release rae. Corre alulaion is neessary for implemenin he new eneraion of buildin fire safey odes in bi pos-flashover fires. Hihlihs in he esimaion of probable hea release rae by burnin ombusibles will be disussed in his paper. Sample alulaion of ahievin low values of hea release rae o onvine he auhoriy will be illusraed. Suh misake should be avoided o esimae reasonable desin fire in FEA/PBD. Adequae fire safey provisions, inludin hardware passive buildin desins, aive fire proeion sysems and sofware fire safey manaemen, an herefore be se up. 1. INTRODUCTION As previous sudies [1-3] abou faories, karaoke lounes, reail shops and hiher eduaion insiues show, buildins in Hon Kon usually sore lare amoun of ombusibles. The same applies o residenial buildins as surveyed reenly [4]. The fire load densiy is muh hiher han he one speified in he odes [5,6]. This would ive hiher fire risk and was learly indiaed in several bi fires [7,8], wih he reen one on Fa Yuen Sree in he end of November, 011 [9]. Consequen o he bi Garley Buildin fire [7], fire safey reulaions were upraded o some exen. For buildins havin diffiulies o omply wih he presripive buildin fire safey odes [e.. 6,10-13], fire enineerin approah (FEA) [14,15] or performane-based desin (PBD) [16,17] an be applied. This applies [18] o boh new buildin projes wih speial arhieural feaures; and upradin fire safey provisions for exisin buildins. Some enineers are no willin o provide he neessary fire safey provisions simply for reduin he os as required by he liens [19]. A ommon assumpion made in suh FEA/PBD projes is o operae he desined fire safey provisions when he fire is no ye developed o an areed value. In ase he fire breaks ou, he responsibiliy of suppressin bi pos-flashover fires is hen lef o he firemen. Furhermore, here was no evidene o show how safey and healh of he firemen would be affeed in suh FEA/PBD repors, if he buildins failed o omply wih ode speifiaion. Even in overseas PBD uides developed in he pas wo deades, oupaional healh and safey issues have no been speifially addressed, followin normal praie of assessin ha he desin omplied wih fire safey ode [e.. 16,17]. The imporane of proein firemen in PBD was jus disussed more seriously in he Asia- Oeania meein on railway fires [0]. 11

2 Takin lon ravel disane of FEA/PBD projes as example, firemen have o walk a loner disane wih limied supply of oxyen from heir porable breahin apparaus, whih operaes for only 30 minues. They have o arry heavy equipmen, inludin air boles, o he fire sie firs. They hen have o arry disabled or injured oupans ou of he fire sie. Hih amoun of ombusibles would ive very bi fires, pariularly in open kihens [18] of small flas in all residenial buildins. Several firemen were already killed in bi fires in reen years [1]! Obviously, firefihers all over he world are wellrained o fih aains any bi fires, bu here is an imporan quesion on suh FEA/PBD projes []: Is i fair o expose our brave firemen o suh hazardous environmen in buildins wihou adequae fire safey provisions, jus for he sake of reduin onsruion os [19]? Suh noions are ommonplae for shor-erm propery invesmen, bu i remains a mysery ha many buildins, whih will be operaed in lon erm, are also buil based on suh hinkin. Examples inlude underround subway saions, lon unnels and even bi airpor erminals mainly owned by he overnmen. The hea release raes resuled from burnin he ombusible iems should be esimaed properly for adequae fire safey provisions [3]. I is an imporan parameer affein he ourse of a fire. However, pyrolysis and he burnin rae anno be predied realisially from maerial properies of sored ombusibles. There are limiaions on developin a model inerain he inermediae ombusion reaions, urbulen mixin of asified fuel vapour wih air and hermal radiaion feedbak [4]. The peak hea release mih be able o ive approximae prediions for some fuels, bu he approah sill has o be observed losely wih experimenal daa [5]. Therefore, only smoke movemen in bi halls an be predied properly by fire models. Some fire onsulans even said ha hea release rae of desin fire would no affe Available Safe Eress Time (ASET). I is beause fire models anno predi burnin proess and smoke oxiiy auraely wihou usin experimenal empirial parameers for sored ombusibles a he momen. Therefore, all FEA/PBD projes wih suh wron appliaion of fire model mus be reviewed as soon as possible. The inpu hea release rae is aken as imporan daa for usin fire models in fire hazard assessmen ool [6]. However, very few experimenal daa is available from sysemai full-sale burnin ess [7], espeially for loal produs and buildin onfiuraions. Fire enineers (who should undersand he differene beween fire and smoke spread) used o arue wih he auhoriy o e very low desin fire in FEA/PBD projes, leadin o serious onerns [8]. I is observed ha lare ariums sore hih amoun of ombusibles. As poined ou by he Fire Servies Deparmen, over 0 MW of hea was observed in pos-flashover bi fires. Suh value is muh hiher han 5 MW, he value assumed in he desin fire, and some even o as far as assumin lower han0.5 MW! The hea release raes esimaed from he exisin models mih deviae from hose of an aual fire. There is onenion on he sale of a desin fire. As poined years ao, issues and problems ha need o be addressed [9] are: Review on he haraerisis of ombusibles idenified in a buildin, i.e. furniure, audiovisual equipmens, elerial applianes, pariion walls and arpes. Carryin ou full-sale ess o se up a daabase on he hea release raes of loal ombusibles by he oxyen onsumpion mehod. Assessin he hea release rae models for burnin ombusible iems by experimenal daa. Carryin ou more researh on modellin he fire environmen in a room o ome up wih realisi fire models. However, no proress was made in hese areas, despie many overseas sudies [0]. Tha is beause: Researh fund was sinifianly u in many ounries. Consequenly, very few researh posiions wih low pay are available. There is a hih demand from he indusry on arryin ou FEA/PBD projes. Researh assisans wih limied rainin on fire siene and enineerin are hen reruied by hese ompanies. Consequenly, fire researh proressed slowly wih very limied researh oupu. Indusry even employed researh sudens who jus ompleed heir maser or dooral deree. When ompared o he raduaes 15 years ao, hey mih no have aquired ood undersandin of fire siene and enineerin ehnoloy. Bu i is enourain ha more overnmen offiers are eaer o sudy for a maser and dooral deree, hinkin ha suh rainin is essenial in promoin safey. Offiers are muh beer rained in fire enineerin when ompared wih 0 years ao. I is now very hard o ain he offiial approval wih a one-pae FEA/PBD repor on wood sruures. Neverheless, all hose proje repors on FEA/PBD should be reread arefully [,30]. Closin down 1

3 all spaes whih are no equipped wih adequae fire safey provisions will no be an opion. However, suh FEA/PBD projes mus be inspeed arefully afer many fires. Fire offiers are arryin ou annual invesiaion o make sure ha he assumpions made in he repor are aually he ase. In some rowded areas in some iies, buildin owners are required o desinae wo seuriy uards who have ood fire rainin o be on duy for 4 hours a day. The uards should be on duy in all suh sorae areas, where hea release rae mih be muh hiher han he assumed value, suh as 5 MW, as submied in he FEA/PBD repor. Fire safey provisions in open kihens in residenial flas of superall buildins wih exessive fire load densiy [4] mus be upraded immediaely.. APPROPRIATE APPROACH WITH FIRE TESTS There are many world lass buildins and infrasruure in Hon Kon. The heih of he alles buildin is over 400 m, he underround railway saions are loaed 40 m below he round, and a 9 km-lon lon unnel is operain in Hon Kon. The safey problems should be addressed properly, and very few sudies on hea release rae measuremen for loal ombusibles had been arried ou. However, here are exensive measuremens on he fire aspes of differen ombusibles all over he World. Combusibles suh as furniure [31,3], surfae and linin maerials [e.. 33] wih he oxyen alorimery [3,34] were esed a he Swedish Tesin and Researh Insiue (SP), Sweden; Buildin and Fire Researh Laboraory (BFRL), Naional Insiue of Sandards and Tehnoloy, USA; Fire Researh Saion (FRS), Buildin Researh Insiuion, UK (in heir Cardinon full-sale burnin failiies); and oher bi laboraories in USA, Japan, Ausralia and New Zealand. There are a lo of works on he burnin of sinle iems [3,31-33], fire models [6], and on burnin some omparmens suh as libraries, reail shops [35] and offie worksaions [36] in advaned ounries. The researh proramme Combusion Behaviour of Upholsered Furniure (CBUF) in Europe [31] is an obvious example. Even Mainland China, Korea and Japan have se up lare daabases on ombusibles, inludin rain omparmens [e.. 0]. Even houh he auhor poined ou his en years ao afer he bi rain fire in Korea and he arson fire in Hon Kon, surprisinly, nohin was developed in Hon Kon. Possible hea release raes were seldom measured sysemaially [,37] in oher ounries. A mos, only an empy rain ar wihou luae was esimaed [37,38] o ive low value of 17 MW, bu i was no lear wheher he hea release rae [38] was dedued from full-sale burnin ess or esimaion. I is also no lear why he draf version was reommended hea release rae was 6.5 MW [13] on rain fires by he same roup in he draf version. Noe ha he suesed hea release rae was abou 0MV in sysemai qualiy experimens on empy rain ar fires in Korean and Japan [10]. Combusibles of similar haraerisis bu wih differen maerials and manufaurin proess would ive very differen hea release rae upon burnin. Exernal hermal radiaive hea flux is anoher key faor. Similar sudies on loal produs under hih hea flux should be arried ou. As poined ou by he auhor abou 10 years ao [7], hea release rae of burnin real rain ars in Hon Kon were no esed in sysemai lon-erm researh projes, and i laed far behind many oher ounries in he Far Eas. 3. CONCERNS ON COMMON CALCULATION METHODS ADOPTED A desin fire wih lower hea release rae would predi a less hazardous environmen by fire models. Therefore, small desin fire in FEA/PBD projes, inludin bi airpor erminals, was used o be proposed wihou any experimenal jusifiaion in full-sale burnin ess. Enineers always arue wih overnmen offiers in ounries where here is a low hane of bein proseued of professional neliene as in Ialy [39]. Bu if he real fire of hea release rae is muh bier han ha of he desin fire, he fire safey provision will no funion as expeed. Consequenly, i ould lead o disasers, whih endaner he life of oupans, damae propery, disurb normal operaion and environmenal proeion. More imporanly, he life of firefihers mih be a risk! There are onerns over he followin hree mehods whih are adoped o esimae hea release rae of desin fire. Mehod 1 The alulaion based on proedure suh as on p. 8 and 83 of referene [40] is no learly explained. The peak hea release rae Q peak (in kw) was alulaed by he mass loss rae m f of he fuel (in /m s), insananeous ombusible surfae area A f (in m ), and effeive hea of ombusion h (in MJ/k) as: Q peak = m f h A f (1) 13

4 Daa on hea release rae densiy q d (in kw/m ) of maerials was published in lieraure [3,41-43] and he followin equaion was used: Q peak q d () A f Puin in equaion () ives: q d = m f h (3) Values of q d and m f were opied direly from lieraure wihou usin he daa of loal produs onerned. I should be noed ha furniure wih he same appearane mih no be made of he same maerials. Values of Q peak on he ombusibles are hen used o ive he oal hea release rae. For example, value of q d for polyurehane foam wihou fire reardan is 466 kw/m [3], and h is 46 MJ/k. A lon hair of surfae area 0.33 m would ive a low peak hea release rae Q peak of only 154 kw. However, ha piee of polyurehane foam measured overseas in he lieraure [3] mih no be he same as he loal polyurehane foam [9,41]. Mehod Anoher mehod lised [40] is o esimae Q peak by he hea load H (in kj) and he fire load FL (in k) as: H = FL h (4) By assumin ha he hea release rae urve Q() (in kw) a ime (in s) afer iniion in a room follows a NFPA- fire [4] wih rowh faor (5 s, 150 s, 300 s and 600 s for ulra-fas, fas, medium and slow fires respeively). Q() 1000 (5) Takin ime p (in s) for hea release rae o limb a Q peak, hea release up o peak H p (in kj) is alulaed by : p H Q() d (6) p 0 By assumin wihou explainin ha H p is H/, ombinin equaions (4), (5) and (6) ives: p FL h d Inerain ives: p FL h 3 Rearranin ives: p 1/ 3 3 FL h (7) 1000 Value of Q peak is hen alulaed by akin as p : Q peak 1000 p Puin in p ives: 4 / 3 Q 1000 peak 3 FL h / This ives: 1/ 3 Q H peak 13 FL 3 FLh h (8) However, i is no lear why H p is aken as H/. Even suh a proposed fiure is aeped, limiin value of Q peak o 1 MW (or 1000 kw) means ha H is also limied. Takin an ulra-fas -fire wih of 75 s, he upper limi of fire load FL u for polyurehane foam of h 46 MJ/k an be alulaed by equaion (8): FL u or FL u This ives: FL u = 9.5 k 14

5 Therefore, only small amoun of ombusibles, suh as 9.5 k of polyurehane foam, is allowed o sore in he room o ive a Q peak of 1 MW. Mehod 3 Anoher mehod is based on esin a proool whih is ompiled wih overseas sandards [43]. Aain, he ess mus be arried ou by burnin loal produs wih proedure suiable for loal demand. I should no jus follow overseas sandards wihou any jusifiaion as raised by he auhor [41]. I should be noed ha he level of eduaion and ivi awareness in some Far Eas ounries are very differen from advaned ounries. Willinness o queue up while waiin for bus is a ood example. The above hree mehods are ommonly used o alulae he peak hea release rae and he values alulaed are lower han he desin fire, say 1 MW. I should be noed ha values of Q peak repored in he lieraure [40,43] were no measured for loal furniure. I is neessary o demonsrae ha ombusible iems suh as furniure used in he area onerned mus be idenial o hose bein esed. However, suh daa for loal produs was no shown. Furhermore, averae hea release rae Q av alulaed from he fire load FL and burnin duraion B (in s) by he followin equaion should no be mixed up wih Q peak. Q FL h av (9) B The above equaion does no ive he peak hea release rae. Researh roup led by he auhor [e.. 18,8] found ou ha very hih peak hea release rae was observed while burnin loal ombusible produs in pos-flashover fires. Radiaive hea flux is anoher faor affein he ombusible behaviour of furniure. Fire reardans applied o he ombusibles, suh as polyurehane foam sofa, would be inied, burn viorously and emi oxi as under hih radiaive hea flux. Therefore, beer equipmen mus be provided o firemen, who o o he fire sie wih burnin polyurehane foam. All he above mehods on alulain hea release rae should be reviewed wih experimenal suppor. 4. APPROPRIATE APPROACH AND NECESIITY OF FULL-SCALE BURNING TESTS Aademis have ome up wih a more appropriae approah, whih is based on repored hea release rae urves [44]. I is neessary o deermine he desin fire by deduin he hea release rae urves while burnin loal produs. Take a karaoke loune wih furniure suh as polyurehane sofa, ushions, offee able, hairs, pariions, surfae linin maerials and floor overins or arpes as an example. Burnin furniure of hea release rae Q furn, surfae linin maerials of hea release rae Q surf and arpes of hea release rae Q ap would ive he oal hea release rae in he karaoke Q K a ime [45] from he priniple of superposiion [46] as: Q K = Q furn + Q surf + Q ap (10) Hea release rae urves Q furn, Q surf and Q ap should be measured experimenally in an oxyen onsumpion alorimeer for loal produs. Takin domesi upholsered furniure in Europe repored in he CBUF proje [47] as an example, Q furn (in kw) a ime (in minue) is: Q furn = 500 exp[0.4 ( 3) ] (11) For Class I linin in Swedish sysem, Q surf (in kw) wih a burner of srenh beween 100 kw and 300 kw plaed nex o i an be fied by: Q surf = 300 exp[0.6 ( 1.7) ] (1) Q surf for burnin Classes II and III linins mih be a fas -fire for an adjaen burner of srenh 100 kw o 160 kw, i.e.: Q surf = 160 (13) Burnin arpes mih ive Q ap, whih ould lead o an ulra-fas -fire: Q ap = 640 (14) Therefore, he oal hea release rae Q K1 (in kw) for a fire in a room in karaoke loune wih linin maerials lassified as Class I under he Swedish sysem wih arpe inied a ime i is: Q K1 = 500 exp [0.4 ( 3) ] exp[0.6 ( 1.9) ] ( i ) (15) Bear in mind ha he surfae linin would be inied a 0. minue when Q furn reahed 100 kw. 15

6 For surfae linin maerials lassified as Swedish Classes II or III, he oal hea release rae in burnin a karaoke box Q K (in kw) is: Q K = 500 exp[0.4 ( 3) ] ( 0.) ( i ) (16) A piorial presenaion of he 5-minue burnin urves of he arpe (i.e. i = 5 minues) is shown in Fi. 1. This illusraes he hoie of linin maerials is imporan afer a piee of furniure is inied. For usin Class I linin maerials, he arpe mih no be inied as Q K1 dropped o 1000 kw in 5 minues. Esimaion by equaion (10) is only an approximaion. Hea release from he firs obje would affe he burnin behaviour of he seond obje. The phenomenon is ompliaed and empirial relaions from full-sale burnin ess need o be derived [46]. For example, wheher he arpe would be inied in 5 minues is a quesion and an only be deermined by full-sale burnin ess. Furher, he radiaive hea flux enounered is an imporan elemen in sudyin a pos-flashover fire. Hea release rae urves measured by a one alorimeer would be differen under differen radiaive hea fluxes. Therefore, modellin hea release rae of he karaoke loune by he priniple of superposiion wih equaion (10) is a very rude esimaion. Full-sale burnin failiies, whih measures hea release rae by he oxyen onsumpion mehod [3], mus be used o jusify he model. As repored by Herzber e al. [48], desin fire is a ruial and deisive parameer o predi room fire developmen in performane-based desin on fire safey provisions. No simple ools are available for prediion a he momen. On he oher hand, CFD models are no ye developed [4] o sudy fire. A mos, he model is only appliable o smoke onrol desin in bi halls. Even so, ho smoke ess are required o jusify he prediions. The aademis should develop semi-empirial mehods as repored [48], whih is suppored by lare volume of experimenal daa from benh-sale ess and one alorimeer. Inermediae-sale ess wih sinle burnin iem (SBI) es or Redued Model Box (RMB), full-sale burnin ess wih room alorimeer and real-sale ess wih lare exhaus hood are also worh explorin and used oeher wih wo-zone models [6,49]. As measured experimenally by oxyen onsumpion mehod, burnin able would ive 300 kw o 600 kw; burnin priner would ive 80 kw, 600 kw for ompuer monior, and 100 o 50 kw for TV ses. Therefore, i is very diffiul o onrol he peak hea release rae in a small room o 1 MW, even houh only produs in Europe are used. The siuaion was even worse for an empy rain omparmen. Real-sale ess were ondued on only par of a 9 m 3 small rain omparmen whih is only equipped wih wo side-by-side seas. In his sein, he peak release rae would only amoun o 0.5 MW o MW! Fi. 1: Example of esimain hea release rae in a karaoke box (Chow, 001) 16

7 5. CONCLUSIONS Hea release rae [3,34,50] is he mos imporan parameer in fire hazard assessmen. A beer undersandin of hea release rae would provide more informaion for prediin he followin [e.. 3]: Fire environmen, suh as he smoke layer emperaure, smoke layer inerfae heih, radiaive hea flux, rae of smoke flowin ou and air inake rae, hrouh he openins. The likelihood of flashover. Upward flame over walls. Iniion of oher iems whih are plaed adjaen o a burnin iem. Furhermore, onenraions of oxi ases in he smoke layer an be predied if relevan informaion suh as he ombusible produ yields is measured. The resuls will be useful in reommendin appropriae fire safey provisions for buildins whih sore hih amoun of ombusibles. Fire safey reulaions on new arhieural feaures, superall buildins, lare halls, lon unnels and underround subway saions anno be se up wihou researh suppor. Geomerial onfiuraions and hea release rae daabase for loal ombusible produs mus be learly se up. Fire safey provisions in very deep underround subway saions anno jus rely on esimain ASET wih low desin fire [51], and i is riiized as a flawed appliaion [5-54]. Queries should be direed o fire safey provisions, and hek if hey follow presripive odes. In some buildins, pariionin wihou fire resisane in lare halls, sorin hih ombusibles in residenial buildins wih open kihens and exended disane in lare halls and lon unnels are ommon praies and feaures. There is an overridin onerns [55] abou how suh desin would affe fire fihin sraey and poenial healh impa o firemen. I should be reminded ha his poin was only briefly disussed in many overseas PBD uides [16,17]. Very few FEA/PBD repors in he pas wo deades addressed he issues of firefihin and proein firemen. Firemen have o arry heavy porable breahin apparaus and fire fihin equipmen ino he fire sie, while walkin a loner disane han he ode speified, in a sein whih laks adequae fire resisin pariions. They have o brin ou injured oupans and he disabled, and air boles an only operae for 30 minues. Impa on firefihers was no horouhly analyzed in he FEA/PBD projes while fire safey provisions deviaed from he ode requiremens. For example, requirin firemen o walk a muh loner disane while arryin porable breahin apparaus and even injured oupans would definiely affe resue and firefihin. The firefihers healh will erainly be affeed. However, key informaion on hea release rae of loal produs is sill absen in many ounries and iies of he Far Eas, inludin Hon Kon. Carryin ou full-sale burnin ess [7,56-58] requires resoures, bu obviously, suh sudies are neessary o uaranee safey, pariularly in sein up new odes wih onradiory low fiures on desin fires [13,0,38]. All exisin projes wih hea release raes, whih are esimaed wihou sron jusifiaion by full-sale burnin ess, mus be revised o ensure appropriae fire safey provisions in buildins sorin hih amoun of ombusibles [1-4,59]. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work desribed in his paper was suppored by a ran from he Researh Grans Counil of he Hon Kon Speial Adminisraive Reion, China for he proje Aspes of Open Kihen Fires in Tall Buildins and Proeion Alernaives (PolyU 5136/11E) wih aoun number B-Q7R. REFERENCES 1. W.K. Chow and K.C. Cheun, Aspe of fires for faories in Hon Kon, Journal of Applied Fire Siene, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp (1996).. W.K. Chow and Gii C.H. Lui, On he hea release of burnin karaoke musi omparmens, Journal of Fire Sienes, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp (001). 3. W.K. Chow, Carmen C.S. Fon and Kenny S.M. Kon, Fire load survey for offies in a universiy, Inernaional Journal for Housin Siene and Is Appliaions, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp (006). 4. Researh in Eas Asia, Arup researh brohure, Ove Arup Hon Kon, Deember (010). 5. W.K. Chow, FSD irular leer no. 13/88: A ommen, The Hon Kon Enineer - November, p. 19 (1989). 6. Codes of Praie for Minimum Fire Servie Insallaions and Equipmen and Inspeion, Tesin and Mainenane of Insallaions and Equipmen, Fire Servies Deparmen, Hon Kon Speial Adminisraive Reion (005). 7. Souh China Mornin Pos, Hon Kon, 1 November (1996). 8. Apple Daily, Mei Foo Sun Chuen Fire, Hon Kon, 9 April (1997). 9. Souh China Mornin Pos, An aiden jus waiin o happen, 1 Deember (011). 17

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